
Class T ' -2- ** 
Knnk 1/1/856 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



/ 

The 
Industrial Improvement Schools of 

Wuerttemberg ^ Gt ~ 



By 

Albert A. Snowden 

it 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

in the Faculty of Philosophy 

of Columbia University 



1908 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword ........ i 

Preface . . . . . . . . 2 

Introductory Note . . . . . . . 5 

I. — The Place of Vocational Training in 

the Kingdom .... 7 

II. — The Rise of Vocational Schools . 22 

III. — The Reorganization of the Industrial 

Improvement Schools ... 34 

IV. — The Industrial School of Stuttgart, 

and the Commercial Schools . . 48 

V. — Other Industrial Schools, and the Cen- 
tral Bureau for Industry and 
Commerce . 57 

References . . . . . . • 73 

Bibliography . . .... . . 85 



TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD 



VOL. VIII NOVEMBER, 1907 No. 5 



FOREWORD 

At the present time few matters pertaining to education 
have more significance for Americans than those which reveal 
the accomplishments of the modern German nation, and per- 
haps no feature of German educational progress means more to 
us to-day than that which pertains to vocational training. 

The memoir which is here printed is a study of the system 
of industrial and vocational schools in one of the smaller king- 
doms of the German Empire. It sets forth briefly the economic 
conditions which hold in the kingdom of Wuerttemberg, the 
natural resources of the country and the system of transporta- 
tion. It then traces the development in this environment of 
the system of industrial schools and the service which they 
render in the up-building and maintenance of the state. 

Such a study seems to me particularly opportune and the 
reading of this report answers the questions which the American 
is likely to ask. He desires to know how such schools arose, 
what the different kind of schools are, how the pupil is steered 
into them, and what part the vocational training plays in his 
preparation for life. In describing one of the smaller kingdoms 
of Southern Germany, Mr. Snowden has here made it possible 
for the American reader to understand and to trace the develop- 
ment of industrial education and the function which it plays in 
an agricultural and manufacturing state as he can only under- 
stand it by reading the actual story of some one of these states. 

Henry S. Pritchett. 



PREFACE 

The report herewith presented is the outcome of some weeks 
spent in Wuerttemberg, during an investigation of vocational 
training in Europe. Although many other states abroad have 
made noteworthy provisions to secure greater industrial efficiency, 
it is the writer's belief that on the whole Wuerttemberg offers 
the experience most fruitful for our consideration at present. To 
be sure we do not have here a young giant of the democracies, 
rich in undeveloped resources, with the means within easy reach 
to recoup any youthful extravagances, but, rather, a tight-skinned 
monarchy that was in danger of paresis over a half -century ago, 
and almost as populous then as it is now. Moreover, fate had 
set it down in a hilly region that seems vastly more like a 
pleasant place to live in than a good place to get a living. 
Indeed, the fierce economic struggle of the early days drove 
thousands of Wuerttemberg citizens into permanent exile from 
the Fatherland. During the first five years of the last half- 
century the kingdom actually witnessed a diminution of sixty 
thousand in the total population. It was said that the country 
was overcrowded. 

Wuerttemberg had long been in the lead among the Teutonic 
states for general culture in education, a notable achievement, 
perhaps unappreciated abroad because of the political ascendency 
of Prussia. Still the population was too dense. Finally, those 
statesmen who had maintained that industrial efficiency makes 
its own elbow-room in the world were allowed to take such steps 
as would provide a broad vocational training for every one in 
the kingdom who could take advantage of the opportunity. 
Gradually but surely the country evolved within itself the 
elements of commercial stability and economic independence 
that have placed it in the front rank of nations. The tide of 



353] Preface. 3 

emigration has been checked, the population has increased 
rapidly, and the whole land shows evidence of general 
prosperity. Also there is more room than ever before. The 
story of this development, full of suggestiveness for America, is 
the theme of the following chapters. The chief institutions 
concerned are the industrial improvement schools, and the 
Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce (Zentralstelle fuer 
Gewerbe und Handel) a branch of the Interior Ministry. During 
an active career, three years of which were spent in the Orient 
as legal adviser to the Japanese government, its president, 
Ritter von Mosthaf, has been able to perform services for his 
country that are nothing short of wonderful. Moreover they 
have met with the high approval of king and commoner. The 
new National Industrial Museum (Landesgewerbemuseum) at 
Stuttgart, an institution that is worth going around the world 
to see, is one of the monuments of his sagacity. Another 
important accomplishment for which he has earned the 
greatest credit is the new law governing the reorganization of 
the industrial improvement schools. Since the details of this 
law are all set forth in Chapter III, it is unnecessary to print 
the text of this brief enactment in the report. 

While it might have been more desirable, from the point of 
view of sequence in time, to have introduced the historical 
chapter (II) at the outset, it has seemed to me that the reader 
would appreciate first a summary statement of what Wuerttem- 
berg has actually accomplished by means of its system of 
vocational training. The historical chapter, however, finds its 
justification and interest in the fact that it gives a brief outline 
of the battles that have been fought in the past for industrial 
betterment through training, and by so doing may offer some 
guidance to us who have just entered upon a similar struggle to 
secure greater average efficiency in America. 

The present monograph is an abridgment of the chapters on 
industrial training in a work on "The Schools of Wuerttemberg, " 
to be issued at another time. Written some months ago, the 
present treatise was accepted for publication by a society of 
national scope, but through the error of an officer in that society 
publication was delayed during my absence in Europe. A 
similar monograph, written by myself, is appearing, however, in 
the School Journal, 



4 Teachers College Record. [354 

I am under especial obligations to President von Mosthaf, 
who not only furnished me with a number of helpful state 
documents, but also generously answered questions as to the 
working of the system of industrial schools and allied problems 
on many occasions. 

It also gives me great pleasure at this time to acknowledge 
the helpful interest and assistance of Dean James E. Russell, 
of Teachers College, Columbia University, under whose auspices 
this and other investigations have been conducted abroad by 
the writer; the kindly encouragement of Messrs. T. A. Sperry 
and John Jamieson; the suggestive criticisms of Mr. Felix M. 
Warburg, and especially of President Henry S. Pritchett, who 
has co-operated in the final revision, and has kindly written a 
foreword. I wish also to acknowledge my indebtedness for 
the courteous aid of the Wuerttemberg Minister for Religious 
Affairs and Education, Dr. von Weizsaecker; of President von 
Stumpf and Dr. Losch of the Statistical Office; of Ministerial 
Director Baelz; and finally of many school principals, teachers, 
manufacturers and business men, students, artisans, and experts 
throughout the kingdom, who gave me freely of their valuable 
time, with that rare courtesy and helpful spirit which I have so 
often met with abroad. 

A. A. S. 

420 "West 121st Street, 
New York City 




WUERTTEMBERG. AREA, POPULATION, DESCRIPTION, GOVERNMENT 

The Kingdom of Wuerttemberg, in South Germany, is the third 
German state in area (7528 sq. mi.) and the fourth in population (2,300,- 
330 in 1905). Compared with New Jersey (area 8173 'sq. mi., pop. 
2,144,143 in 1905) or with Massachusetts (area 8546 sq. mi., pop. 
3,003,635 in 1905), it shows a lesser area and a population between the 
two. Texas is over thirty-five times the size of Wuerttemberg. To be 
noted on the map is the irregular wedge of land (entering from the south) 
formed by the little territory of Hohenzollern (440 sq. mi.) — an isolated 
province of Prussia, and the original cradle of the present Imperial dyn- 
asty. From Ulm, at the Bavarian border, the Danube is navigable, 
and from Heilbronn, in the north, the Neckar carries ships, while traffic 
on the Lake of Constance is brisk in all seasons. The Black Forest Hills 
crop out in the west and furnish "Hollaender, " the great pines that are 
floated down to the Dutch shipyards. The Swabian Alps are thrown 
across the country from southwest to northeast. On the whole, the land 
is hilly, with mountains and valleys interspersed in bewildering confusion. 
The climate is equally varied. Thirty-one per cent, of the total area is 
forest, mostly government owned. Sixty-four per cent, is under culti- 
vation, and furnishes work for forty-five per cent, of the population. 
Wuerttemberg, since 1806 a kingdom, has been a constitutional monarchy 

5 T355 



6 Teachers College Record [356 

since 1819. The present King is William II (ace. 1891). The Parliament 
is composed of two houses ("estates "). The upper chamber, or House of 
Standesherren, has as members: the royal princes (four at present), persons 
named by the King (there were two in 1906 with hereditary rights, and 
six who had been named for life), and the representatives of mediatized 
houses (seventeen in 1906). The King appoints the president of this 
house. The Chamber of Deputies, or lower house, is composed of thirteen 
nobles, six evangelical and three catholic dignitaries, the Chancellor of 
the state university, seven representatives of cities, and sixty-three 
representatives of districts that might be called "congressional, " though 
better known as administrative units. There are six Ministries — Justice, 
Foreign Affairs, Interior, Religious Affairs and Education, War, and 
Finance. For purposes of administration the country is divided into 
four "Circles": Neckar (chief seat Ludwigsburg) , Black Forest (Reut- 
lingen), Danube (Ulm), and Jagst (Ellwangen). These correspond fairly 
well with the natural divisions of the kingdom. The "Circles" are di- 
vided into a total of sixty-four "Districts " (Oberaemter) , Stuttgart making 
two of these. The smallest local division is the Gemeinde, or commune, 
corresponding fairly well to our "township." Of these there are 1905. 
Thirty-seven of them have a population of five thousand or over, that is, 
are cities, one hundred and thirteen show a population between two and 
five thousand each, and the rest are below two thousand — some of them 
the merest villages together with the outlying country. In Wuerttem- 
berg there are very few isolated dwellings, even in the rural districts. 
In this report, the Gemeinde is usually referred to as the "commune," 
"community," or "locality." 

An interesting geographical fact is that Wuerttemberg contains within 
its area several "enclaves," or bits of territory belonging to neighboring 
German states, which in turn have enclaves subject to Wuerttemberg rule. 
The kingdom contains three bits of land belonging to Baden, with a total 
of 2934 acres and 11 52 inhabitants; belonging to Hohenzollem, 6330 
acres, in three divisions, with 1042 inhabitants. Baden encloses four 
Wuerttemberg spots, with 2735 acres and 240 people; Hohenzollern has 
four Wuerttemberg areas with 6605 acres and 129 1 inhabitants. Two 
other bits of land are under the co-dominion of Prussia and Wuerttemberg, 
and of Baden and W T uerttemberg, respectively. 



THE INDUSTRIAL IMPROVEMENT 
SCHOOLS OF WUERTTEMBERG 

CHAPTER I 

THE PLACE OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE KINGDOM 

In the old German song which Longfellow has aptly rendered 
into English, a Swabian peasant — doubtless from Wuerttem- 
berg — bespeaks happiness for the "stout and hardy men and 
the nut-brown maidens there." The measure of contentment 
claimed for the rugged tillers of the soil is found in all walks of 
life in that snug little kingdom; for Wuerttemberg is the king- 
dom of contentment. Other lands may have towns that are 
bigger and busier than those here seen — the true story of the 
development of New York or Chicago outclasses the fairy tales 
of seven-leagued progress — but few countries show either town 
or land where the conditions not inherent in soil, climate, or 
location are more generally hopeful than in Wuerttemberg. 
This notwithstanding certain native disadvantages. The coun- 
try is comparatively poor in natural resources. Though rich in 
salt mines, there is a lack of coal for manufacturing purposes 
and only a scant supply of "white coal," otherwise water- 
power. Here are no bonanza farms or wealth-producing El 
Dorados. In many a case the waste of a Kansas wheat-farm 
would make a merry harvest for the Wuerttemberg peasant. 

Industrial competition is intrenched on all sides without the 
kingdom. Furthermore, the property-owner may not look to 
the earnings of the government railroads to reduce his taxes, 
for a glance at the map of Europe reveals the unfortunate 
situation of the country with regard to transcontinental traffic, 
and explains why the annual profits are only three per cent., or 
about enough to pay the interest on the railroad debt, whereas 
the Prussian railroads yield an annual revenue of six or seven 
per cent. The Wuerttemberg system is overbuilt, and is at 
the mercy of the larger Reichslaender. Bismarck at one time 

7 [357 



8 Teachers College Record [358 

nearly succeeded in consolidating the states' railroads into an 
Imperial system. But the South dissented from the plan, and 
now the conditions are reversed. The South, and especially 
Wuerttemberg, is the victim of traffic discrimination. Neither 
is there much tourist traffic here, at least to such extent as 
maintains many an European town through the lavish ex- 
penditures of Americans. While speaking of revenues, let us 
mention the chief proprietary source of income for the kingdom. 
Here is a wonderful illustration of that statesmanlike prevision 
that has put the country on an economic basis that is unassail- 
able, and which, in substance, is the theme of my writing. The 
government forests, in 1904, covered an area of 483,421.5 acres. 
When all expenses of maintenance had been paid, there was a net 
revenue from the forests in that year of $2,701,587.25. And 
that without impairing their value in any way. Here is a 
regard for "woods and templed hills" that is not only patriotic, 
but practical. Such forethought, evinced in many directions, 
has made Wuerttemberg self-sustaining and independent. If 
not wealthy, it is prosperous, and that is better. The govern- 
ment assists and protects the agriculturist and the laborer just 
as it aids and protects the manufacturer — helping to increase 
both the quantity and the quality of the output of factory and 
field. And despite the drawbacks already cited, despite the 
cumbersome traditions of court and caste that prevail, despite 
the awkward alliance of church and state, and other inherited 
encumbrances, the various elements of society co-operate to a 
degree not found in some democracies. Study at close hand 
shows that problems of common interest, whether relating to 
social, commercial, agricultural, or industrial needs, have been 
met in a statesmanlike manner. 

Upon investigation the industries of Wuerttemberg are 
found to be surprisingly diversified and prosperous. As we in- 
spect the numerous towns that cluster in the winding valleys, 
we are to become convinced that the Wuerttemberg workman 
is doing his full share for the German industrial advance, an ad- 
vance that is attracting the attention of the world and is even 
putting the English competitor on the street. The cleverest 
Yankee inventions are readily imitated by the German man- 
ufacturer. On the other hand, there is a rapidly increasing 
exportation to America, or to rival markets, of a vast quantity 



359] 27** Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 9 

of Wuerttemberg products, of the kind wherein superior work- 
manship is, on the whole, the essential quality. The Declared 
Export Returns of the various consuls at Stuttgart supply 
abundant evidence of this fact. Stuttgart stands next to 
Leipzig as a German publishing centre, and its products are 
exported annually to the extent of millions. But it is not in 
artistic printing alone that Wuerttemberg excels. It is made 
clear by the Imperial Statistics, verified by our personal in- 
vestigations, that Wuerttemberg is more than holding its own 
among the German states in the production of machinery and 
implements, in the textile, wood and metal working industries, 
and in the manufacture of musical instruments and art materials, 
and of paper, leather, and rubber goods. When it is observed 
that Wuerttemberg is also producing its share of the agricultural 
output of the Empire, at the same time furnishing its full quota 
of 25,000 men to the Imperial army, what the industrial achieve- 
ment means, in the face of natural disadvantages, becomes 
clear. It means that the Wuerttemberg workman has taken 
his place in the front rank of that industrial army that is fairly 
started on a conquest of the world of trade. No one in posses- 
sion of the facts will deny that this campaign has been well 
planned, or that Germany is making rapid progress in this 
direction. England has already been successfully invaded, and 
the "practical Yankee" set at naught. Take this illustration 
as one of many: the single item of machinery and tools. Ger- 
many's sales to the United States have doubled in the five 
years from 1900 to 1905. Meanwhile, American sales to Ger- 
many, in this line, are now about one-third of the totals of five 
years ago. For the same period, Germany now sends to Eng- 
land twice as much finished products, receiving only two-thirds 
the former imports. To Sweden, Denmark, Argentine, and 
Chile, Germany now sends double the quantity of machinery 
and tools exported five years ago, while to China it sends five 
times the former amount, and to Canada four and to Portugal 
three times the quantity sold in 1900. In the case of all other 
countries there has been a gradual increase of trade. 

Our consuls, importers, and manufacturers who are in touch 
with the situation seem to have agreed that this successful 
German invasion of the world's markets is the logical outcome 
of the greater average efficiency of her workmen. An analysis 



io Teachers College Record [360 

of what Wuerttemberg has done toward securing this high 
vantage ground gives the keynote of progress for the whole 
German industrial movement, and is the more fruitful since 
the kingdom has this very year embodied the results of over 
three-quarters of a century of experience with industrial im- 
provement l schools (Gewerbliche Foribildungssckulen — industrial 
"continuation schools") in a remarkable bit of legislation, to be 
described in detail later. The industrial and commercial im- 
provement schools of Wuerttemberg are designed to give a 
broad vocational training to boys and girls of fourteen to eighteen 
years who have left the common schools at the end of the com- 
pulsory period (six to fourteen), as nearly all do, and have gone 
to work. 2 This training forms a basis for greater efficiency and for 
industrial and commercial intelligence. Instruction has hitherto 
been given on Sundays or holidays or in the evening, but under 
the new law will be given in the daytime on week-days. The 
schools attract older workingmen, as well as apprentices. One 
evening, when I was conversing with the director of the Stuttgart 
industrial improvement school, a man fifty-two years of age 
entered the office and enrolled for his thirtieth half-year in the 
institution. I talked with many who had been regular in 
attendance for ten or a dozen years. When schools attract and 
hold students in this way, it is evident that they have something 
vital to offer, and that this belief is shared by the masses. It 

1 Throughout, I have by preference employed the term industrial, 
commercial, or general "improvement" schools, in lieu of the expression 
"continuation" schools. The Foribildungssckulen in which general 
subjects (that is, mainly the "four R's " — reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
religion) were taught originated before the vocational (industrial and 
commercial) Foribildungssckulen. In the case of the former there was 
a real "continuation" of the work done in the common schools. This is 
hardly so apparent in the case of the vocational Foribildungssckulen; 
and many Germans are not satisfied with the term that has been in vogue. 
In our language "improvement schools" — qualified by the adjective 
"industrial," "commercial, " or "general" — seems better, and moreover 
a notable precedent for its use is found in an important series of English 
special reports on German schools. 

2 The German Imperial law prohibits altogether the regular employment 
of children under twelve in the industries, and permits their employment 
when above that age only under the severest restrictions as to hours of 
labor, factory conditions, and compliance with the compulsory education 
laws. A great many go to work at the age of fourteen. 



361] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 1 

also becomes clear, with regard to schools in general, why 
for many years the Wuerttemberg records have shown no 
perceptible traces of illiteracy in the kingdom. 

Wuerttemberg, in area and population comparable to New 
Jersey, had in 1905 two hundred and forty- three industrial 
and commercial improvement schools, public drawing schools, 
and "women's work" schools (Frauenarbeitschulen) scattered 
throughout the kingdom, with a total of twenty-eight thou- 
sand five hundred and seventy-four students. One hundred 
and fifty of the institutions were industrial improvement 
schools for young men, — twenty-two compulsory, by local 
option, and one hundred and twenty-eight non-compulsory, — 
attended by 18,535 students (1349 + 17,186); four were com- 
mercial improvement schools — two compulsory and two op- 
tional — with a total enrolment of 1245 (225 + 1020); forty-two 
were industrial drawing schools, with 894 pupils on the rosters; 
fifteen were industrial improvement schools for girls (or female 
departments in the industrial improvement schools for men) 
with 1042 in attendance; and thirty-two were "trades schools" 
for girls and women, with 6858 on the lists. Industrial drawing 
was taught in these schools by six hundred and fifty-four 
specialists, and the remaining subjects by nine hundred and 
fifty- two instructors. The state gave aid to the schools to the 
extent of $73,500, of which $66,500 was for the industrial and 
commercial improvement schools alone. The growth of the two 
last named institutions during the past forty-five years is 
indicated, by the following statistics: In 1861-62, they were 
found in 84 localities, with 7273 pupils; in 1871-72, 155 places, 
9763 students; in 1881-82, 153 communes, attendance 10,225; 
in 1891-92, 188 and 17,250; in 1901—02, 239 (of these , 104 
were schools for drawing only) and 21,054 students; at present, 
fully 30,000 students, including those in the "women's work" 
("trade") schools. 

The new law — to be in full operation in 1909 — will add a still 
greater number to the lists. It compels all localities (Gemeinden) , 
having for a period of three successive years at least forty youths 
under eighteen years of age engaged in industrial or commercial 
pursuits, to establish an industrial or commercial school, and to 
maintain it as long as the number of such youths employed does 
not fall below thirty for three years in succession. The term 



12 Teachers College Record [362 

"commercial or industrial pursuits" is given the widest possible 
scope in Wuerttemberg, and takes into account not only the 
factory hand and the counting-house assistant, but the day 
laborer, the grocer's clerk, and the errand boy. The law pro- 
vides for the compulsory attendance of all young workmen (a 
stipulation formerly left to the localities to decide, in virtue of 
Imperial laws based on a North German ordinance of 1869). 
The chief objective point of the law is to furnish opportunity 
for instruction during the work-days, — instead of evenings, 
Sundays, or holidays, as before. The minimum number of hours 
per year is to be two hundred and eighty. The schools are to be 
organized more strictly than ever along vocational lines, and 
instructors specially prepared through long courses of training 
are to be put in charge everywhere. The courses will extend over 
a term of three years, instead of two, as formerly. 1 

Besides the schools already mentioned, Wuerttemberg has an 
unusual number of other state-aided institutions and special 
courses, of all grades, in which vocational instruction is given. 
This in addition to a general educational system that is as well 
developed as any in the world, if not better. Peculiar to the 
system is a great variety of types of schools, each concentrated 
upon a special aim. The vocational schools have been more 
practical than in other states, and have enrolled a higher per- 
centage of the population. Wuerttemberg was the first to make 
vocational education compulsory by state law with day instruc- 
tion for all apprentices engaged in industry or commerce. 
Wuerttemberg's classical schools have long been more classical 
and its "realistic" schools stronger in mathematics than those 
elsewhere in Germany. Its system of schools for all the people 
is the oldest in the world. There is a considerable number of 
"Latin" schools in the kingdom — the direct descendants of the 
monastic and municipal schools of the middle ages, though at 
present modern in spirit and equipment. Likewise the theolog- 
ical seminaries are the continuation of the old monastic schools, 
with the addition of modern methods. The University is one of 

1 A detailed analysis of the recent legislation for the industrial im- 
provement schools — a codification of experience in vocational education 
that is now the model for all Germany — is postponed to Chapter III. 
The historical growth of vocational school types is outlined in Chapter II 
(abridged for the present use). 



363] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 3 

the oldest in existence, and excels in the theological department. 
The agricultural college is the oldest in Germany. The same 
is true of the Industrial Museum at Stuttgart. Also, the 
pedagogical exhibit of this Museum is the oldest permanent 
exposition of the kind in the world. The Sunday schools of 
Wuerttemberg are the oldest institution of the kind in existence. 
Reutlingen, in Wuerttemberg, had the first "women's work" 
school in Germany. Wuerttemberg has done much more than 
Prussia for the education of women through state initiative. 
Its Technical College (or Institute of Technology) and Royal 
Building Trades School are in many respects admittedly the 
best in Germany. The educational system is unique, too, in 
the fact that home training is much preferred to that of the 
kindergarten for the earliest years. There are very few schools 
for infants, the kindergarten being ordinarily private, not in- 
cluded in the state system, and only rarely considered part of 
of a city system, although more often subsidized by the latter. 

If proof of the general efficiency of Wuerttemberg 's educa- 
tional system is desired, compare, for instance, the almost 
absolute literacy 1 of the kingdom with the records of our States 
highest in this respect — those in the West. Iowa and Nebraska 
headed our honor roll in 1900, with a percentage of illiteracy of 
"only" 2.3 per cent. Maine, the first Eastern State in the list, 
came eighteenth, with 5.1 per cent, who did not read or write. 
New York State is next, with 5.5 per cent. — New York County 
(Manhattan and the Bronx) 8.1 per cent. — while Louisiana is 
at the bottom of the list, with an illiteracy of 38.5 per cent. All 
make a poor showing in the statistics of general culture when 
put side by side with Wuerttemberg. Or, if you believe the 
comparison on the basis of literacy unfair, because of our colored 
population and annual accessions of illiterate immigrants, com- 
pare in relation to the population the state-aided schools and 
attendance in Wuerttemberg with all the schools, public and 
private, of any state in the Union. Compare also the "clock- 
work" school-attendance of Wuerttemberg, and the training, 
length of service, and general efficiency of the teachers, with the 

1 Out of 11,000 recruits for the army examined in Wuerttemberg each 
year, only three individuals, on the average, are found to be illiterate. 
These are invariably Germans from other states, or from out-of-the- 
way colonies. 



14 Teachers College Record [364 

conditions in any American community and see just how far 
Old World Wuerttemberg is behind New World America in 
these particulars. Then observe what Wuerttemberg is doing 
to build, maintain and develop vocational schools. The inquiry 
furnishes food for reflection. 

Before giving the table of attendance in the various types 
of schools in Wuerttemberg, an introductory word is perhaps 
required for the purpose of differentiating the vocational improve- 
ment schools previously mentioned from the general improve- 
ment schools (Allgemeine Foribildungsschulen — ''continuation 
schools") and the Sunday-schools ("Sunday continuation"). 
For some years all the Wuerttemberg localities have been under 
the obligation to establish general improvement schools with 
instruction in religion and the common branches for male pupils 
who have finished the compulsory common school course, and 
also for female pupils where possible. Students of both sexes 
who are through with the common schools are obligated to 
attend the general improvement schools for a period of two years, 
and for a total of eighty hours a year, to be given, ordinarily, at the 
rate of two hours a week, on work-days (usually evenings). In 
the majority of the agricultural districts, four hours a week for 
twenty weeks in the winter — and in a few cases instruction on 
Sunday — is permitted. Exempt from attendance are those 
who are enrolled in a higher institution, or in a vocational im- 
provement school. In the event that for local reasons the 
community is excused from the letter of the law, a Sunday 
school — like the week-day improvement school with instruction 
in the common branches as well as in religion — must be sub- 
stituted. Attendance here is compulsory for three years, — in 
communes with a single day-school teacher, for only twenty 
hours a year, and in those with two or more, for forty hours a 
year. In i9o5-'o6, there were general improvement schools 
in 1969 Wuerttemberg localities, with 2273 "rooms" and 37,770 
pupils (22,682 males, 15,088 females). Of the 2273 "classes," 
692 had the instruction spread over forty weeks, and 1581 
during the winter semester only, in double measure. On work- 
days, 1891 classes were taught; on Sundays, 123; on both, 259. 
Day classes were 749 in number; evening classes, 1302; partly 
day and partly evening classes, 222. Sunday schools for boys 
were found in 182 places, with 186 "classes" and 3119 pupils; 



3 65] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 5 

for girls, in 1593 localities, with 1646 divisions and 32,345 pupils. 
Total number of Sunday school pupils, 35,464. 

With all due respect for numbers, it must be admitted that 
the general improvement school of Wuerttemberg is rather a 
sorry institution in comparison with the vocational improvement 
schools. And the same thing is true in those German states 
which require a longer period of attendance yearly. However, 
their social value is considerable, and they do help a few ambi- 
tious persons, and even catch a few black sheep and give them 
enough mental baggage to enable them to count as literate. 
But in Wuerttemberg, with a total of only eighty hours a year 
(making about thirty -two average school days in the two years) , 
there is very little time in which to accomplish the announced 
aim, viz.: "to impart the knowledge necessary for practical life." 
In the industrial improvement school it is different. There you 
have a total of 840 hours in three years (or practically two school 
days a week), religion and the purely cultural subjects are 
eliminated, and instruction in the students' own field is given, 
as far as possible by practical workers of distinction and with 
special ability and training. Meanwhile the student has the 
chance to put the theory he acquires to the test in the daily 
work. 

The School Attendance in Wuerttemberg 

Total population 2,300,330 in December, 1905. Area considerably 
less than that of New Jersey. The figures below are for actual school 
attendance. In the case of elementary and secondary education the 
statistics are those of January 1, 1906. The others are mostly for 1906, 
but in the case of the vocational improvement schools, for 1905. 

A. In the Elementary Schools System: 

In Kindergartens and Infant Schools (not state 
institutions, and almost exclusively private): 

a. In Stuttgart 3 ,000 

b. Elsewhere, estimated 3,006 

In "People's" (Volks-) Schools (ages 6 to 14). . . 319,515 

In the Six State Normals for Men 593 

In the Preparatory Departments of Men's Nor- 
mals , 507 



1 6 Teachers College Record [366 

In the Two State Normals for Girls 102 

In the Four Private Normals 43 

In the General Improvement Schools (1969 

localities) 37,77o 

In the Sunday Improvement Schools (for the 

common branches) 35,464 

Total 400,000 

B. In theJSecondary Schools System: 

In the Elementarschulen (prep, schools — ages six 

to eight — for the secondary system) 3,609 

In the 91 "Gymnasial" (classical) and " Real- 
istic- Gymnasial " (modern Latin) Schools: 

In the Four Protestant Theological Seminaries. . 186 

In the Fourteen Gymnasien (ages eight to 

eighteen) 4,305 

In the Pro-Gymnasium (or abbreviated Gym- 
nasium) at Oehringen 123 

In the Four Real-Gymnasien (Latin — mathematics 

— modern), ages nine to eighteen i>93 2 

In the Five Real-Progymnasien (or abbreviated 

Real-Gymnasien) 783 

In the Fifty-eight "Latin Schools" (ages nine to 
fourteen), One Real-Latin School, and Four 

Latin Divisions in Real- Schools 2,233 

In the Ninety- two "Realistic" Schools: 

In the Ten Oberrealschulen (giving a nine- years 

modern-scientific course) 5,457 

In the Six Realschulen with two higher classes. . 1,619 

In the Twelve Realschulen with one higher class . . 2,285 

In the Sixty-three Realschulen without added 

classes (giving a five-years course) 2,973 

In the Buerger schule ("municipal school" of 
higher rank than the common schools) at 
Stuttgart 1,402 

In the "realistic" class of the Realgymnasium at 

Gmuend 125 

In the Higher Girls' Schools: 

a. Thirteen " Public " 4,043 



367] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 17 

b. Six "Private" 929 

In the Girls' Higher Normal 73 

Total 32,077 

C. In the Vocational (Industrial and Commercial) 

Improvement Schools: 

In Industrial Improvement Schools I 8,S35 

In Commercial Improvement Schools 1,245 

In Industrial Drawing Schools 894 

In Industrial Improvement Schools and Divisions 

for Girls and Women 1 ,042 

In "Women's Work" Schools 6,858 

Total 28,574 

D. In the State University at Tuebingen (Winter, 

1,407 ; Summer, 1,714) *2,i87 

E. In the Higher Art Schools: 

In the Conservatory of Music at Stuttgart 490 

In the Academy for the Plastic Arts in Stuttgart 

(W., 101 ; S., 97) *i27 

In the Industrial Art School in Stuttgart (W., 129 ; 

S-, 97) *i55 

In the Industrial Art Workshop at Stuttgart (W., 

43; S., 50) *57 



Total 829 

F. In the Agricultural Schools: 

In the Agricultural Institute in Hohenheim (W., 

128; S., 108) *i52 

In the Veterinary College in Stuttgart (W., 107; 

S., 97) *i4o 

In the Agricultural Winter Schools of Ellwangen, 

Kirchberg, and Ochsenhausen 36 

In the Vintner's School at Weinsberg (19 regular, 

87 special) 106 

In Eight Agricultural Winter Schools 292 

In the Gardening School of Hohenheim 12 

* Estimated from detailed attendance at the Technical College for two 
semesters. 



1 8 Teachers College Record [368 

In Special Fruit-raising Courses 84 

In Pomological Courses 30 

In the Four Housekeeping Schools 65 

In Three Courses in Agriculture 29 

Total 946 

In addition to the foregoing, there are three Agricultural 
Improvement Schools, and Five Practice Shops for Farriers. 

G. In the Technical College (Hochschule) at Stuttgart . . 1,381 
H. In the Building Trades School at Stuttgart (S. 566 ; 

W., 884) * 99 6 

I. In the Technicum for the Textile industries, at 

Reutlingen ; 149 

J. In the Technical School for Skilled Mechanics and 

"Watchmaking, at Schwenningen 69 

K. In the Weaving Schools of Heidenheim, Sindelfingen, 

and Laichingen 94 

In the Weaving Workshop at Sontheim 92 

In the Embroidery School at Wolf schlugen 25 

In the Lacemaking School of Koengen : . . . . 30 

L. In the Tanners' School of Metzingen 8 

M. In the Technical School for Book Printing at 

Stuttgart 108 

N. In the Commercial College at Stuttgart 125 

O. "Practical-Technical" Courses for master-workmen 
in a variety of industries — given under the au- 
spices of the Central Bureau for Industry and 

Commerce 276 

In "Theoretical-Technical" Courses, under the 

same auspices 35 

Total in Special Industrial and Commercial 

Schools and Courses 3*388 

Besides the above there are a few private industrial schools — 
about a half-dozen good ones — in connection with large manu- 
facturing enterprises for the most part. A few courses for 
apprentices are also given independently under the auspices of 
unions and guilds. 



369] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 19 

P. In Orphan Homes, Reformatories and Schools for 

Defectives: 

In Orphan Homes 984 

In State Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb. . . 227 

In Private Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb . . 440 

In Schools for the Blind. . . . , 196 

Other Defectives (in Public Schools: 1,086, 

Private Schools: 11) I »°97 

In Reformatories and Rescue Homes for Children 2,333 



Total 5,277 

RECAPITULATION 

In the Elementary Schools System 400,000 

In the Secondary Schools System 32,077 

In the State University 2,187 

In the Higher Art Schools 829 

In the Agricultural Schools 946 

In the Institutions for Orphans, Defectives, and Way- 
ward Children 5,277 

In the Industrial and Commercial Improvement Schools 28,574 

In the Other Vocational Schools and Courses 3,388 



Total 473,278 

The few remaining figures for private schools not mentioned 
above would not make any appreciable difference in the result. 
Figures preceded by an asterisk (*) are estimated in accordance 
with the detailed attendance" at the Technical College for two 
semesters — a very rough approximation is the result, but the 
numbers concerned are small. It is because the attendance 
at the higher institutions of Wuerttemberg is tabulated officially 
by half-years that it is difficult to get at the exact number of 
individuals enrolled during the year, as would be reported in 
the year-book of an American university. A careful com- 
parison of the semester lists of the Technical College, for instance, 
shows that 614 regular and 14 extension students are included 
in the statement for both semesters under consideration. The 
total enrolment for the year, then, reduces to 103 1 regulars and 
350 extension students. Further analysis shows the drawing 



20 Teachers College Record [370 

power of the institution abroad — a condition characteristic of 
all the higher institutions of Wuerttemberg. During the winter 
semester cited, 209 students came from other German states, 
106 from Prussia alone, and 66 from foreign countries: during 
the summer half-year, 190 came from other German states, 
109 from Prussia, and 62 from abroad. Two of the regular 
students for the year were women, and the extension courses 
enrolled 196 women in the winter and 34 in the summer. These 
figures are for the Technical College alone. 

The table given above does not indicate the entire range of 
commercial or industrial instruction. Commercial subjects, for 
instance, may be pursued in the University and in certain of 
the higher schools ("realistic"). Nearly all the girls enrolled 
in the common ("people's") and higher girls' schools are 
instructed in manual subjects. In the common schools this 
department is called an "Industry School, " and a few boys are 
also admitted to it. Other industrial aids are the lectures and 
personal assistance of the official travelling instructor (Wander- 
lehrer) of the Central Bureau, and the intelligent help furnished 
through the industrial museums headed by the National Indus- 
trial Museum at Stuttgart, and by means of industrial exposi- 
tions, both state and local. One hundred and eighty- five 
apprenticeship workshops are subsidized. Special laboratory aid 
is placed at the disposal of the merchants and manufacturers 
of the land. Free advice is furnished by the experts of the 
Central Bureau, in close relations with the unions of employers 
and employed. Finally, a valuable industrial journal (weekly, 
furnished to unions at the club rate of only $.24 a year) has been 
issued by the Central Bureau since January 1, 1849; financial 
assistance is extended to worthy industries; and stipends are 
granted to young and old for industrial investigations. 

A glance at the statistical summary of school attendance in 
Wuerttemberg discloses the fact that over twenty per cent, of 
the total population goes to school each year — a remarkable 
showing when you remember that tradition in Germany has 
only lately permitted of the secondary and higher education of 
women, and that to a very restricted degree. Nearly all the 
school population had direct vocational instruction for a part 
of the time at least, and about ten per cent, of all the students 
were in purely vocational schools. The facts give rise to certain 



3 7 1 J 77*0 Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 2 1 

questions. Subsequent chapters will show the historical neces- 
sity for these schools, and their development. Also the part 
played by the state, community, and by private individuals in 
their organization and maintenance ; the attitude of individuals 
and of employers and labor unions; the important problem of 
securing efficient vocational teachers as met by Wuerttemberg ; 
how it is that the kingdom has come to take an advanced position 
in favor of compulsory attendance, and in favor of day instruction 
as opposed to evening schools ; how in common with other Euro- 
pean nations it has been driven to establish an agency essentially 
separate from the ordinary educational administrations, for the 
direction of the industrial schools. 1 For history clearly impeaches 
the ordinary educational administrations for the failure to fur- 
nish adequate instruction in the industries. It is European ex- 
perience that they even fail in many cases to do all that lies 
within their power in this regard until forced to adopt a practical 
attitude by the fact that the major responsibility for providing 
such instruction has been placed upon another ministry (in- 
dustrial or commercial) or body closely in touch with the 
industries and the commercial needs of the country. As 
evidence of the non-practical tendencies of the schools in our 
own land also, witness the general failure, from the point of 
view of industries, of instruction in drawing or manual training, — 
subjects introduced originally out of highly practical considera- 
tions. 2 Immediately, however, they came under the sway of 
a body of cultural theory that is very good in its way, but 
has been allowed to defeat the original purpose of the voca- 
tional training. Unfortunately, too, the field of vocational in- 
struction in the United States has been largely under the 
control of a heterogenous variety of organizations and of 
correspondence schools — the ordinary schools having shifted the 
responsibility. 

1 Under separate ministries in the majority of the larger States of Eu- 
rope, the lower industrial schools are nominally under the educational 
ministries in Wuerttemberg and Austria, but are quite as much under the 
control of the industrial departments (Interior Ministry) through their in- 
fluence in appointing members of the central vocational school boards. 

2 Cf . the Report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and 
Technical Education. 



22 Teachers College Record [372 

CHAPTER II 

THE RISE OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 

The tendency toward state aid in financing industrial 
schools — not only the higher technical institutions, but those of 
elementary grade, for the common workman — has received its 
greatest impetus during the last half of the nineteenth century, 
and especially during the past thirty years. So far as the 
European states are concerned, this tendency amounts to an 
established custom that finds greater favor with the increasing 
years. In France, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, England, the 
German states, Switzerland, and Italy, such action is looked upon 
as a national duty. Even in the United States, precedents of 
the kind are found, both in the national grants of lands and of 
money for the agricultural and mechanical colleges, and in state 
appropriations to these and to special technical schools. Not 
only has the national grant been used for the maintenance of 
such a higher school as the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology, but in other states for such industrial purposes as are 
subserved by the Kansas Agricultural College, and by the 
preparatory departments of several mechanical colleges in 
which elementary trades instruction is given, and where the 
total enrolment often exceeds that of the mechanical college 
proper. The recent introduction in state legislatures of bills 
providing for further financial aid to industrial education on the 
part of the states, emphasizes the growth of a well-established 
world principle. For those statesmen who have long held that 
it is the duty of the body politic to see to it that the com- 
ponent units of the state — individuals — are fortified for their 
part in society by having at least the elements of a general 
education, are coming to maintain that it is the duty of the state 
to assist in equipping all for their practical share in the common 
life. This growing attitude is a natural result of the increasing 
complexity of modern economic conditions. During the middle 
ages, when the guilds regulated the handicraft trades, state 
initiative in behalf of industrial education did not seem neces- 
sary. Instruction in a trade was given by the master in whose 
house the apprentice resided. It extended over a long term of 
years, and was broad and thorough, covering all the features of 
the trade. The apprentice was frequently obliged to assist the 



373] 77&e Ri se °f Vocational Schools 23 

master workman in his book-keeping and other business, hence 
instruction of a general nature was also provided. Further 
industrial insight was obtained when the apprentice could take 
his place as a full-fledged member of the fraternity, an honor 
much coveted and hard to win. In many a thriving "city- 
state" of the early modern era the guilds seemed indispensable 
to the community. However, their political strength proved 
to be their weakness. Ambitious princes fostered independent 
industries to the undoing of the guilds. The elementary, trivial 
and Latin schools, introduced and encouraged by the church, 
assumed the work of giving instruction, although it was very 
limited in amount and did not concern itself with vocational 
teaching. In the face of the competition offered by the stimulated 
industries under princely patronage the guild masters were often 
obliged not only to neglect the general information of their 
apprentices, but to limit the vocational instruction to the meagre 
necessities of the moment. With the introduction of piece- 
work, apprenticeship failed any longer to furnish an all-around 
vocational training. Neither were there any other agencies for 
the purpose. 

At the outset, the organization of special schools to supply 
this demand for a broader vocational training came about 
slowly, largely through private initiative, and with instruction 
mainly on Sunday. At first, the Sunday schools did nothing 
more than to continue the teaching of the elementary schools, 
or to supply what they had failed to give. The Sunday school 
in Wuerttemberg, the oldest institution of its kind which has 
had a continuous existence, was outlined in the church ordinance 
of 1559. The scope and functions of Sunday schools were more 
explicitly set forth by the church authorities in 1695, and in 
1739, these schools were made universally compulsory by a 
synodal order which stated that ' ' all young people must attend 
the Sunday and holiday schools until the time of their marriage, 
so that they will neither so easily forget what they have learned 
in school, nor spend the leisure of Sundays and holidays in a 
sinful manner. " In the Sunday schools they were required to 
"sing a sacred song, read the Bible, repeat the Proverbs and 
Psalms, recite from the catechism, produce their compositions, 
read a letter, and then close with a prayer and the benediction. " 
Arithmetic, too, was soon introduced into the curriculum. 



24 Teachers College Record [374 

But important as the Sunday school has been in the development 
of industrial training in Wuerttemberg, it was nearly a hundred 
years later, when the schools were more directly under the 
authority of the state, that Sunday schools were made use of for 
such instruction in that kingdom. The general school regula- 
tions promulgated in 1763 by Frederick the Great of Prussia gave 
directions for the building of Sunday and " repetition" schools 
so that "the masters might send to school for four hours a week 
those apprentices who did not have the necessary knowledge of 
reading, writing, and religion, " but went no farther in providing 
vocational instruction than did the earlier Sunday schools of 
Wuerttemberg. 

While the great educational leaders of the eighteenth century 
strove chiefly for the advancement of general culture, and while 
the parochial instruction was confined to narrow limits, a few 
beginnings of vocational training were undertaken, both on the 
part of the states and of individuals or associations. Austria, 
in the early sixties of that century established a precedent by 
sending abroad for skilled technicians who were despatched into 
the provinces to visit and instruct the workers, thereby in- 
augurating the "travelling instructorships " (with which the 
duties of an inspector are often combined) that have played an 
important part in industrial training in several European states. 
Under government protection a "manufacturer's drawing school " 
was founded in Vienna (1758), a lace-making school at Prague 
(1767), and the first secular drawing school in Hungary (1770), the 
Royal Drawing School of Buda-Pesth. At about this time Austria 
decreed that "all the royal cities and market towns shall main- 
tain spinning schools throughout the winter, and the children 
of tradespeople shall be obliged to visit them from the seventh 
to the fifteenth year of their age. " 

In Germany, it was through private initiative that the first 
industrial school was established in the north — in Hamburg 
(1767), — at first for architectural drawing alone. Its pro- 
moters were the members of the local "Society for the Pro- 
motion of the Industrial and Useful Arts." The school 
gradually extended its course, and grew in enrolment from 
12 individuals in the year of its founding, to 3256 in 1892. 
Through the initial influence of this institution, the Hamburg 
type of school and of industrial art became the model for North 



375] The Rise of Vocational Schools 25 

Germany, just as that of Munich in Bavaria, Stuttgart in 
Wuerttemberg, and Karlsruhe in Baden became the types for 
South Germany, whereas Middle Germany took advantage of 
both influences, and in some respects worked out its own in- 
dividuality, as in Saxony, for example. The Hamburg school 
was unique in the fact that it commenced with evening instruc- 
tion, instead of the Sunday courses alone which characterized 
the majority of the elementary industrial schools. In Bohemia, 
it was the common school with manual instruction brought in 
to an unusual extent — the " Industry School" — that promised 
to be of the greatest general assistance in the development of 
vocational teaching. Introduced by Pastor Kinderman, there were 
soon one hundred of these schools in (1787) and 232 by 1790. 

In France, where drawing and other elementary industrial 
schools had long been in existence through private initia- 
tive, the state committed itself to the policy of actively aid- ■ 
ing industrial education at this period, but began at the top, 
or with the higher technical schools, just as it commenced with 
the universities in establishing a general system of education 
after the Revolution. At Berlin, the Union for the Erection of 
Sunday Improvement Schools for Apprentices founded the first 
improvement school of that city, in 1797. Two years before this, 
a spinning institute at Birkach near Hohenheim in Wuerttem- 
berg, established by the local pastor, marked the initial point 
for the "industry schools" {Industrie schuleri) that have since 
become consolidated with the common schools of that kingdom. 
Munich, in Bavaria, had a drawing school under royal protection 
in 1792, and in 1793 an industrial school with holiday instruc- 
tion. An industrial school for girls was organized at Nurem- 
berg in 1792. Instruction in sewing, knitting, spinning, and 
housework was given. Similar schools were soon established 
in a number of Bavarian localities, and in 1804 these "work- 
schools" were combined with the common schools by general 
regulation, after the manner of the present "industry schools" 1 
of Wuerttemberg. 

Isolated cases of this type of instruction are found earlier 
— in many communes of France in the sixteenth century, 

1 The so-called "industry schools" of recent times in Bavaria (which 
have lately been abolished) were different. The four schools of this type 
at Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Kaiserslautern dated from 1868 



26 Teachers College Record [376 

while in Germany an institution of the kind was carried on 
at Hamburg in 1604 in connection with an orphan asylum. 
In Baden, which had an industry school in a "poor and 
orphan home" in 17 18, this was followed by other industry, 
or "economy" schools, established at different intervals of 
time. In 1803, a Baden edict declared that girls should be 
taught spinning, sewing, and knitting, in industry schools, and 
that attendance on such schools should be compulsory unless 
suitable instruction of the kind were provided at their homes. 
A yearly test was to determine what progress had been made. 
But in consequence of the political and industrial uncertainty 
of the times, neither did the industry schools of Baden and 
Bavaria meet with continued success, nor did the plans of those 
countries for industrial and technical schools of higher grade 
come into prompt fulfilment. The spinning schools of Austria 
received a setback for the same reasons. With the re-established 
stability of governments after the Napoleonic era, the states 
turned their attention first to general education, and vocational 
instruction, except that of the higher grade, was left to private 
initiative for the most part, until the middle of the nineteenth 
century. Baden and Wuerttemberg were to be the chief ex- 
ceptions to this general rule. In the case of the polytechnic 
schools, or higher industrial institutions, the chief dates for the 
state foundations are. as follows: Paris, the first, 1795; Prague, 
1806; Vienna, 1815; Berlin, 1821; Karlsruhe, 1825; Munich, 
1827 ; Dresden, 1828; Stuttgart, 1829; Hanover, 1831. Several 
of these — Stuttgart and Hanover, for instance — started as 
trades schools, but were later raised to the standard of fully 
equipped polytechnics. 

The first movement toward the general introduction of 
Sunday industrial instruction in Wuerttemberg was the prelim- 
inary inquiry set on foot in 1818 by the Educational Ministry, 
The Society for the Promotion of the Useful Arts at Frankfort. 
a-M. had already founded an industrial Sunday school. The 
problem for Wuerttemberg was to introduce such instruction 
into the regular Sunday schools. In 1825, the Royal School 
Board, in charge of the higher classical and "realistic" schools, 

and although originally intended to prepare graduates directly for in- 
dustrial occupations, they became chiefly preparatory schools for the 
higher technical institutions. 



377] The Rise of Vocational Schools 27 

was entrusted with the duty of propagating Sunday industrial 
schools (in lieu of some of the regular Sunday schools), and of 
determining their programs and administration. The courses 
of study of the following year placed emphasis on the teaching 
of drawing — free hand, geometrical, and architectural; indus- 
trial arithmetic, industrial geography, practical geometry, and 
mechanics, elementary technology, bookkeeping and estimating. 
The number of the schools increased rapidly because of the 
recognized need which they attempted to fill. There were 
thirty Sunday industrial improvement schools in Wuerttemberg 
in 1827, and thirty-seven the following year. But the schools 
could not give entire satisfaction because of the difficulty in 
obtaining fully prepared instructors, and because the same 
books and other materials that had been employed for the 
common and Real- schools were used for the specialized in- 
struction. Improved from year to year, the schools were 
established in sixty-nine Wuerttemberg towns by 1846, and 
enrolled a total of 4500 pupils. The meagre character of the 
instruction given may be measured by the fact that forty-six 
of the schools only occupied two hours a week each, while in 
thirty-eight there was only a single teacher. Despite all efforts 
of the Royal School Board, little ground was gained until after 
the organization of the Central Bureau for Industry and Com- 
merce — under the Interior Ministry — in 1848, and its subsequent 
activity in the development of industrial schools. 

Before continuing to outline the growth of industrial im- 
provement and special trades schools in Wuerttemberg, four 
or five movements that were especially active during the first 
half of the nineteenth century should be mentioned. One of 
these is concerned with the growth in Germany and Austria of 
the Real- schools with their emphasis on science, mathematics, 
and modern languages in lieu of the classics of the Gymnasien. 
For the middle classes they furnished the nearest approach to 
the vocational-school type, and were destined to be the chief 
recruiting ground in later years for the higher technical schools 
of university rank. Their share in the preparation of com- 
mercial leaders has always been considerable. 

A second important movement was the gradual freeing of 
industry from the destructive effects of a system of innumerable 
taxes and customs duties. At the commencement of the nine- 



28 Teachers College Record [378 

teenth century there were in the ancient province of Prussia 
alone "sixty-seven different tariffs for almost three thousand 
kinds of merchandise, and these were to be reckoned in any 
one of seventy-one officially established coinages." Not only 
were the German states separated from each other by tariff 
walls, but the towns within each land had each its own city- 
customs duties, — as Paris now in the case of provisions. Signi- 
ficant of the conditions of the times was the proud proverb of 
South Wuerttemberg — (Ulmer Geld geht durch alle Welt, )"The 
money of Ulm will pass anywhere" — a fact not true of a 
great many German towns whose exact financial status could 
not be ascertained. At the beginning of the nineteenth century 
the guilds also possessed many exclusive privileges which tended 
toward the restriction of trade. Prussia was the first to break 
away from the toils which retarded industrial enterprise, and 
its customs law of 181 9 brought free and unrestricted trade to 
the interior localities. The clever political influence of Prussia 
succeeded in extending the benefits of such legislation to other 
German states, and led to the Universal Customs Union of 
1834, a union that later included not only all the German 
states, with the exception of a few of their communes, but also 
the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg and several communes in 
Austria. The advantages that accrued from the removal of 
inter-city and inter-state restrictions caused commerce to go 
forward by leaps and bounds, with the resultant benefit to 
industry. 

Closely interrelated with the movements already cited was 
the complete abolition of the guilds, as in France (1791), or 
their restriction, as in Austria by imperial decrees, and in 
Prussia through the celebrated edict of 1810; the organization 
at a later date of industrial unions, and the share these associa- 
tions took in the founding of special trades and industrial 
schools, and in inspiring state initiative in this direction. A 
further stimulus to the industrial institutions of Germany came 
from the influence of France, exercised not only directly, but 
also through its effect on English, Belgian, and Austrian in- 
dustry. It was in France that the early introduction of 
geometry — a subject that was to have a far-reaching influence 
in industrial education — met with especial favor. It was here 
also that in both the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries not 



379] The Rise of Vocational Schools 29 

only were the common schools developed to a degree not found 
in other countries, but vocational instruction had been in- 
troduced in many communes through private initiative. Here, 
again, the development of art as applied to industry early 
reached a high state of perfection. France was the first to 
found a polytechnic school, and, although the central govern- 
ment paid little attention to the establishing of elementary 
industrial schools until the last quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, it had special facilities for the training of technical teachers 
before the end of the eighteenth century. Industrial taste and 
industrial intelligence were widely disseminated by the experts 
sent into the provinces. 

Paris was in the eighteenth century , as it is now, the heart of 
a centralized nation whose industrial life current was constantly 
revivified by communication and contact with the capital. 
However, it was not until the London Exposition of 185 1 that 
the eyes of the industrial world, and especially of the English, 
were fully awakened to the superior excellence of the French 
products of industrial art and to the causes of their supremacy 
in the markets of the world. England became alive to the lack of 
facilities for industrial education. The newly organized Science 
and Art Department took up the problem, and within a few 
years a vast system of industrial drawing schools was organized, 
with the Industrial Art School of South Kensington Museum as 
the center and chief sotirce of instructors. By 1873, England 
and Scotland had 173 industrial schools of art, with 22,000 
pupils, and 460 evening art classes. Also, in over 2000 elemen- 
tary schools drawing was a compulsory subject. There were 
besides, in England, Ireland, and Scotland, nearly 1400 indus- 
trial schools and several hundred chemical laboratories, with a 
total of nearly 50,000 students who were preparing themselves 
for the building, mechanical, or chemical industries. Under the 
protection of the Prince Consort, elementary industrial educa- 
tion was organized with more system than any other type of 
instruction in England. The consequent benefit to English 
trade is a matter of history. Yet in recent years Germany has 
done much more than England in the direction of elementary 
industrial instruction. The result is already shown in the 
relative commercial position of the two nations. 

Somewhat earlier than England, Wuerttemberg was the 



30 Teachers College Record [380 

other European state to attack seriously the problem of in 
dustrial training. It was spurred to action not only by local 
needs but by the example of France and Belgium. In 1848, 
the agitation in favor of industrial betterment led to the forma- 
tion in Wuerttemberg of the Central Bureau for Industry and 
Commerce, under' the Interior Ministry, which had charge of 
the handicrafts schools, while the Sunday industrial institutions 
still remained under the charge of the Royal Board. What 
followed has been duplicated in other European countries. 
Business interests pressed for a more practical administration 
of the improvement schools. The final result was a permanent 
Royal Commission (appointed in 1853 to represent both the 
Educational and Interior Ministries), under the presidency of 
the head of the Central Bureau. This commission, under a 
recent law, is superseded by a Higher Industrial School Council 
similarly organized. 

Since the Sunday industrial schools did not allow sufficient 
time for thorough industrial training, the Royal Commission 
soon took the first step in advance by providing also evening 
industrial schools for the more capable candidates. Two 
courses were given. The apprenticeship course was to comprise 
the introduction to industrial composition and correspondence, 
industrial arithmetic, and whatever geometrical principles are of 
greatest importance in industry, and finally drawing, both 
mechanical and decorative; in the higher course, the mathe- 
matical subjects and drawing (with the addition of modelling) 
were to be continued, and, as new material, physics and mechan- 
ics, industrial chemistry, and lastly bookkeeping, and the prin- 
ciples of industrial economy, were to be taught. Attendance 
upon industrial schools was to be optional, although those who 
came under the provisions of the Sunday school compulsory law 
were still obliged to attend the Sunday general improvement 
school or the Sunday industrial improvement school in the event 
that they did not elect to follow the courses of the evening 
industrial establishments. These provisions continued in force 
until the Imperial Industrial Ordinance came into effect with 
the entrance of Wuerttemberg into the confederation of Ger- 
man states in 1871. Then a small but ever increasing percentage 
of the local cities took advantage of the privilege therein con- 



381] The Rise of Vocational Schools 31 

f erred upon them of making attendance upon industrial im- 
provement schools compulsory. 

The industrial improvement schools were made local (Ge- 
meinde) institutions from the outset. Their immediate inspection 
and direction was left to the communal school board, which was 
required to constitute a special commission for industrial im- 
provement instruction through the appointment to the com- 
mittee of capable industrialists, and of the principal of the 
school. The state agreed to furnish one half of the expense 
remaining after the locality had provided the building and 
equipment and the amount of tuition collected had been applied 
on the remaining liabilities. The industrial guilds and unions 
helped, by advancing the tuition of poor pupils wherever it 
seemed advisable. The president of the Central Bureau and 
the members of the Royal Commission proceeded to visit the 
communal councils and to urge in every way within their power 
the establishment of the schools. The great difficulty, as every- 
where, at the first, was to secure instructors who could give the 
vocational work. For the very important subject of industrial 
drawing, some had already been trained in the special school 
founded by the commission. In 1854 there were twenty -five 
industrial improvement schools, and by 1856 forty-five, with 
both Sunda}^ and evening instruction. By 1861-62 the schools 
had been established in 84 localities, with 7273 pupils; and in 
1871-72 in 155 places, with 9763 in attendance. Several 
important results of the first experiment were soon evident. 
First, the increased efficiency of those workers who attended 
the fully equipped schools was so marked as to win for all time 
the influence of industrial employers and unions in favor of the 
improvement schools. Second, it was found impracticable and 
unnecessary to separate the school programs into apprenticeship 
and journeymen courses, except in the large cities. Third, it 
was found that the payment of tuition, however small, in the 
case of adolescents and adults, increases the self-respect and 
self-dependence of the pupils and adds to the value put upon 
the instruction. Fourth, the compulsory-attendance require- 
ment is not satisfactory if the locality is not prepared to equip 
the school with a capable teaching personnel and with the material 
necessary to give the best results. Soon after the organization 
movement was fairly started, several communes hastened to 



32 Teachers College Record [382 

enact a compulsory law on the principle that what is good for 
some is good for all. Since they were unable to obtain in- 
structors sufficiently qualified for the new work, or to provide 
suitable quarters and the other desiderata, the outcome of this 
zeal was disastrous and in some cases discredited the schools for 
a time. 

Wuerttemberg now leads all German states in the extent of 
the deA'elopment of its industrial improvement schools. Other 
states are not far behind in this respect, the growth in the past 
five years being especially marked. Bavaria followed Wuerttem- 
berg, in 1864, with a general ordinance for the organization of 
industrial improvement schools. Saxony did likewise in 1873, 
although in that kingdom the system of special technical schools 
for a variety of industries is the most noteworthy feature of a 
well-planned scheme of industrial training. Baden, which in 
1834 commenced to pay much attention to the organization of 
higher industrial schools, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha passed state 
laws in behalf of industrial improvement schools in 1874. Saxe- 
Meiningen-Hildburghausen did similarly in 1875. It was well 
along in the eighties before the movement became general. 
Saxony, Baden, Wuerttemberg, and Hesse early passed com- 
pulsory laws for attendance at general improvement schools. 
In Prussia, the increasing strength of the Polish constitutency 
of West Prussia and Posen led to the law of 1886, in which the 
Minister of Commerce and Industry was empowered to make 
attendance at the improvement schools (semi-industrial) com- 
pulsory for all workers under eighteen. In 1 1 5 localities such in- 
stitutions were established, but the law failed through lack of a 
penalty or because the industrial program could not thrive in 
agricultural districts, without modification. When in 1891 the 
Prussian state assumed a large part of the financial responsibility 
for improvement schools, they were soon introduced in all 
quarters of the kingdom. However, a great many of the so-called 
industrial schools of Prussia, and the industrial improvement 
schools of Bavaria up to the year 1900, were merely general 
improvement institutions with industrial drawing added to the 
regular schedules. The whole tone, purpose, and content of the 
northern industrial improvement schools, especially in Prussia 
and Saxony, has been strengthened through the efforts of the 
German Union for Improvement Schools, organized in 1892. 



383] The Rise of Vocational Schools 33 

Not alone in regard to the improvement schools, but in many- 
other directions, the Educational Ministry and the Royal Com- 
mission of Wuerttemberg busied themselves for the attainment 
of industrial efficiency. Toward and after the middle of the 
nineteenth century these activities were most pronounced. 
The schools were to reach everybody dependent on industrial or 
commercial pursuits — the child in the "industry schools," the 
apprentice or journeyman in the improvement schools or in 
the special drawing schools or courses, the prospective foreman 
or superintendent in special technical schools (mechanical, 
textile, or building trades) , the engineer in the technical univer- 
sity. Training for girls and women was provided in the " in- 
dustry schools," in "women's work" schools, and in the special 
and improvement schools. 

In order to furnish facilities for the education of foremen, 
the Stuttgart Trades School had been founded (in 1829). By 
1840 the school had attained such scope and grade of work that 
it was called the Polytechnic. In 1845 the courses in secondary 
technical instruction were classified separately and the present 
Royal Building Trades School was founded. In 1862 the Poly- 
technic was made a Technische Hochschule, or Technical College 
of university rank. 

Of the special technical schools (Fachschulen) Reutlingen 
had the first one — the now famous Technicum, or Technical 
Institute for the Textile Industries — founded in 1855 by the 
Weaving-school Union and later subsidized by the state. In 
Reutlingen, also, the movement in favor of "women's work" 
schools began, in the sixties. The technical weaving schools at 
Heidenheim (i860), Sindelflngen (1869), and Laichingen (1873) 
were monuments of the earlier years of the industrial move- 
ment. The other special technical schools are of comparatively 
recent founding, and in their plan give expression to the results of 
long experience. The older schools have been many times 
remodelled in keeping with current requirements. 

It is about thirty years since the "industry schools" — those 
in which sewing, spinning, knitting, and similar work is taught — 
were united with the common or "people's" schools. The 
latest separate statistics for the "industry schools" date from 
1895-96, when in 1929 schools a total of 120,377 pupils received 
such instruction. Only 283 of these were boys, the number of 



34 Teachers College Record [384 

male pupils allowed to take the work — compulsory for girls — 
having diminished steadily from the outset. The total attend- 
ance in the "people's" schools during the same year was 
approximately 142,000 boys and 156,000 girls. 



CHAPTER III 

The Reorganization of the Industrial Improvement 

Schools 

The new industrial improvement school law of Wuerttem- 
berg deserves an extended analysis here. It embodies not only 
the experience of the kingdom in which the elementary in- 
dustrial school has been most thoroughly developed, Wuerttem- 
berg itself, but that of the other German states as well, since a 
commission which was sent out to study the conditions in the 
neighboring states gave the Central Bureau and the Educational 
Ministry the benefit of personal investigations. Moreover, rep- 
resentatives of the industrial boards of trade and of the unions 
participated in the preliminary studies. Finally every detail 
was examined thoroughly in the offices of the Central Bureau 
and of the Ministry, as well as in the ultimate committee of the 
Parliament and on the floors of the houses themselves. The law 
naturally represents an advanced position with regard to in- 
dustrial training, a position so advanced that even in America, 
where everything is possible, we may not hope to put several of 
its fundamental principles into general practice here for many 
years. I refer especially to the requirements for compulsory at- 
tendance and day instruction. And it is interesting to note that 
these stipulations, together with the determination of a satisfactory 
minimum of hours of instruction, were considered the most im- 
portant in the Wuerttemberg bill. The requirement for day in- 
struction, as opposed to evening, was counted the most important 
of all. The other main issues of the Bill as heartily indorsed by 
Parliament were the reorganization of the industrial improve- 
ment schools as strictly vocational institutions, and the prepara- 
tion of teachers especially trained for the work of these schools 
It was because of the lack of teachers sufficiently equipped to 
carry out the new plans — a lack that the state is meanwhile 
attempting to fill by granting scholarships for instruction to a 



385] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 35 

chosen corps — that the most vital requirements of the act do not 
go into effect until April 1, 1909, and even then the compulsory 
law is to become effective only a year at a time, beginning with 
the youngest who fall within the stipulated ages. Those parts 
of the act which are operative after January i, 1907, relate to 
the appointment of teachers and to the organization of the 
governing boards. 

The chief provisions of the law, to be discussed more fully 
farther on, are as follows: Every locality, or commune, in which 
for three successive years an average of at least forty male 
workmen under eighteen years of age are engaged in commercial 
or industrial pursuits, is obliged to provide an industrial improve- 
ment school — to be called an "industrial school" or a "com- 
mercial school" under the new law — for their reception and 
instruction, and to maintain the same as long as the number of 
workmen of the stated age does not fall below an average of 
thirty for three successive years. The ordinary school under 
the law will be an "industrial school," but if the needs of the 
community are such as to require a "commercial school" also, 
it is to be erected in addition. Decision concerning the extra 
school lies with the local school board, the community council, 
and finally the Higher Industrial School Council. In the case of 
very poor communes, the building of the industrial school may 
be postponed for as long as ten years by action of the Ministry 
but they must support a general improvement school at all 
events. 

Every young man in a commune, who is engaged in an industrial 
or commercial pursuit, and is of the required age, under eighteen 
— they are usually through the common schools at fourteen — 
is obliged to attend the school for three years. If the eighteenth 
year is finished in the course of a school term the obligation 
extends until the end of the semester. Communes which provide 
for a four-years' course of study may make the attendance com- 
pulsory for the fourth year also, in the case of all or of certain 
industries. Those workers whose employment ceases at given 
periods of the year, or is interrupted for other reasons, may be 
authorized to attend school in the locality where formerly 
employed, or if this is not their home commune they may attend 
at the latter place. Those may be freed from the compulsory 
attendance requirement who attend a guild school or other 



36 Teachers College Record [386 

idnustrial institution whose instruction is considered by the 
Higher Industrial School Council to be the equivalent of 
that outlined by law. Likewise, those who show exceptional 
training may be excused. Workers in certain branches of 
unskilled industries, such as the bakers, the barbers, market men, 
may be excused from the instruction in drawing, or by vote of 
the common council, with the approval of the Ministry, may be 
turned over to the general improvement schools. Those not of 
the compulsory age may be allowed the privileges of the schools, 
as has heretofore been the case. The local school board passes 
on such matters, and the persons admitted are under the usual 
school regulations. 

The common councils may authorize the erection of indus- 
trial schools for girls, or the creation of departments for girls in 
the regular industrial schools. In accordance with the imperial 
law of 1900, the communes are allowed to make these schools 
compulsory for employed girls under eighteen years of age- 
The authorization of the common councils for the erection 
of special industrial schools for girls, or for the creation of 
a special industrial department for girls, must be approved by 
the Higher Industrial School Council — the new name for the 
body formerly known as the Royal Commission for Industrial 
Schools. Through similar procedure, those communes which 
do not come under the requirements of the law because they 
do not have forty workers of the stipulated age may never- 
theless be authorized to build industrial schools. Communes 
may unite to establish an industrial school if the total number 
of workers within the compulsory law is at least sixty, on the 
average, for three consecutive years. 

With the approval of the Higher Industrial School Council 
the communes may be authorized to collect tuition from the 
pupils. The stipulation may be made that the employers 
must advance the amount of the tuition. The state pays 
half of the amount required for maintenance after the tui- 
tion and gifts are applied toward it. The minimum number 
of hours of instruction, that is the hours each obligated 
student must attend, for each of the three years, is 280, to be 
further reduced only by action of the Higher Industrial School 
Council. The instruction is to be given throughout the year 
if possible, although in the case of industries which have a 



387] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 37 

regular shutdown season, the instruction may be lumped at 
this time, with due regard to the minimum requirement. The 
compulsory instruction is to be given in the daytime, not later 
than 7 p.m., although the Higher Industrial School Council may 
in individual cases permit it to be given as late as 8 p.m., for a 
period of three years, and for a period of seven years may allow 
the instruction in drawing to be given on Sunday forenoon dur- 
ing the two hours preceding or following the chief divine services. 

The general course of study to be followed will be issued at 
a future date, since two years must elapse before it is strictly 
needed. Employers are obligated to inform the industrial school 
principal as to each and every worker of the compulsory age who 
enters or leaves their employment, within four days after such 
time. They are further required to release these workers for 
attendance at school at the necessary periods, as well as to see 
to it that such attendance is punctual and regular. Fulfilment 
of the latter requirement is also made the duty of parents and 
guardians. The penalty to be inflicted upon employer, parent, 
or guardian responsible for violations of the attendance law 
is to be up to $4.00 for each offence, or imprisonment for as much 
as three days. The pupils responsible for such derelictions are 
punished under the regulations applicable to the general im- 
provement schools, that is, a fine of at least $.24 or "school 
arrest" — imprisonment in the school jail. As in the case of the 
general improvement schools, students of the industrial schools 
who are under seventeen years of age are forbidden to enter 
drinking places unless accompanied by an older responsible per- 
son, or else when on a journey, or at the parent's place of business. 
Penalties for the transgression of this law are the same as for 
non-attendance at school. 

The instruction in the industrial school is preferably given 
by teachers employed for the school exclusively, but also by 
those who teach in other schools or who engage in some other 
occupation as a chief employment. Those employed to 
teach principally in the industrial schools must be appointed 
by the state. In case the state appoints for life, the com- 
mune is allowed to propose names. Appointment to part 
time positions is made by the commune, with the approval of 
the Higher Industrial School Council. Those men employed as 
full time teachers have all the rights of state employees as to 



38 Teachers College Record [388 

pension and other emoluments. Women employed for life have 
the same privileges as those instructing in the higher schools for 
girls, except that they must be unmarried at the time of ap- 
pointment and are under the authority of the industrial school 
principal, of the industrial school board and of the higher 
authority. 

Each industrial or commercial school is under the direct local 
supervision respectively of an "industrial school board" or a 
"commercial school board." The mayor and the principal of 
the school concerned are ex-officio members of this body. A 
special advisory committee of eighteen members — instructors or 
school principals and representatives of industries — is appointed 
by the Ministry for a term of four years, to assist in preparing 
the course of study for the industrial and commercial schools 
and for the purpose of advising in other matters of importance 
This committee as well as the Higher Industrial School Council 
is presided over by the President of the Central Bureau. 

The Act above outlined expressed the results of years of expe- 
rience, and the careful thought of industrial employers, workers, 
and educationalists. Naturally enough the first statement of 
the need for more thorough industrial training originated outside 
of the ranks of schoolmen. Wuerttemberg, lacking coal and 
water-power and the other special facilities that tend to aid indus- 
trial expansion, was forced to rely upon a better quality of manu- 
facture instead of looking to quantity alone. It was necessary 
to lead in this respect to avoid industrial ruin. Earlier expe- 
rience had taught what the industrial schools might be expected 
to accomplish in the way of promoting efficiency. The experi- 
ment of day-school classes, for the same length of time, produced 
results immeasurably greater than did the evening classes held 
in the same cities. The day vocational school proved to be as 
far ahead of the evening school as the latter was in advance of 
the limited Sunday instruction. It was argued that the business 
of learning is a delicate one, requiring for its complete success 
an active, unwearied brain. The pupils were too fatigued 
to accomplish the best results in the evenings — that they put 
forth supreme efforts, all agreed. The evening classes are as 
successful as could be expected, in Wuerttemberg, as in the other 
German states, in France, and in England. But it was agreed 
that Wuerttemberg must take an advanced position in respect 



389] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 39 

to vocational training if it would keep well to the fore in the in- 
dustrial contest. 

The compulsory attendance requirement was not planned 
wholly as a means of increasing the number of students in the 
vocational schools — it was pointed out that only four or five 
thousands more would be added to the school attendance through 
this provision, — it was rather intended to make the day schools 
possible by removing the restraints that might be imposed by 
certain employers, parents, and guardians who might otherwise 
not be willing to release the young workers each week at a 
period in which they could be profitably employed in the busi- 
ness. Also it was desirable that the Higher Industrial School 
Council should be able to say to a commune: "You must provide 
the opportunity for industrial training, by the erection and 
maintenance of a vocational school." Wuerttemberg already has 
a considerable number of industrial schools made compulsory 
by vote of the localities. Several of them owe their origin to 
the fact that the communities are chiefly industrial, and that 
the state appropriation to the industrial schools is more than 
that made to the general improvement schools — hence by making 
attendance compulsory the general improvement school may be 
done away with altogether. 

By 1904-05, there were 22 compulsory industrial improve- 
ment schools out of a total of 150, and two compulsory com- 
mercial improvement schools, in a total of four. However, 
the attendance in the non-compulsory schools of Wuerttem- 
berg has been very fair. They have been more' common in 
the larger places. While the 22 compulsory industrial schools 
of 1905 averaged about 61 enrolled, the 128 optional schools 
averaged 134. Similarly, the two compulsory commercial 
schools averaged 112, to the average of 510 in the two non- 
compulsory commercial improvement schools. • A large per- 
centage of the communes in Baden have succeeded in passing 
the compulsory requirement made possible under the Imperial 
law. 1 In 1904, Baden had 47 highly developed industrial 

1 The Imperial ordinance made it possible for a commune to decide 
upon compulsory attendance for industrial improvement schools without 
the necessity of awaiting the action of the state. A committee of 
the Imperial Reichstag in 1906 outlined a further step by calling for 
suggestions from the various governments looking toward the final en 



40 Teachers College Record [390 

schools, 102 lesser industrial improvement schools, and 11 com- 
mercial improvement schools, of which only three of the in- 
dustrial schools had not been made compulsory. Likewise in 
Prussia, in 1903, out of 1209 industrial improvement schools with 
189,068 students, 1082 with 156,757 students had been made 
compulsory, and of 273 commercial improvement schools with 
29,765 pupils, 182 with 18,509 in attendance had been made 
compulsory. Berlin, notably, has introduced compulsory at- 
tendance for young workmen, and has entered upon a similar 
project in the case of young women employed in the industries* 
Bavaria, in 1904, had local compulsory attendance provision for 
217 of 301 industrial improvement schools. Munich, with its 
constant quota of 6000 apprentices, has for several years en- 
forced a compulsory attendance regulation for industrial schools. 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, through an ordinance which went into 
effect on April 13, 1905, has succeeded in making the industrial 
schools compulsory to about the same extent as Baden. 

The recent Wuerttemberg law goes farther than the others 
and makes attendance compulsory for all communes having at 
least forty workmen under eighteen years of age. While the new 
law will apply to several communes that have not yet established 
industrial improvement schools, it affects only 101 of the 136 
communes which had such schools in 1903. That does not 
mean that the remaining localities may not continue to maintain 
industrial improvement schools — they only need to comply with 
the provisions of the law and to secure the approval of the Higher 
Industrial School Council in order to receive a share in the state 
funds devoted to the purpose. The compulsory requirement 
takes into account the number of workers employed in a com- 
munity. This seemed more practical than to take the total 
population of a locality as a basis, because of the differences in 
the development of the various industries and because of the 
greater convenience in obtaining attendance at school in the 
same locality in which the worker is employed. 

Local conditions are to determine whether young men work- 
ing in certain unskilled industries or as apprentices to butchers, 
bakers, tanners, dyers, barbers, and hotel men, shall be held 
to attendance in the industrial, or in the general improvement 

actment of an Imperial compulsory law that will not be optional — a law 
similar to that of Wuerttemberg — to be applied everywhere in Germany. 



391] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 41 

schools. There is no question but that the apprentices in indus- 
tries requiring greater skill will be given first attention in the 
industrial improvement schools. Those belonging to unskilled 
industries will at least be excused from drawing, in many in- 
stances, although an argument against such a move has been 
advanced in some localities. It is claimed, for instance, that the 
bakers' apprentices rarely stay in the business until the age of 
thirty, because the wages are too low to permit them to marry, 
and so they change to some more remunerative trade requiring 
greater skill. The principles of industrial drawing are considered 
most practical for application in almost any skilled industry. 
Hence many communes will require industrial drawing to be 
studied by all. Those communes which do not do so will be 
influenced chiefly by financial reasons. 

The day attendance and compulsory features of the new law 
received some opposition from small industrial employers who 
feared that their business would be disadvantaged through the 
loss of the time of their employees. The opposition of these 
men was more than counterbalanced by the action of the 
Handwerkskammern, or unions of small industrial employers, 
which voted overwhelmingly in favor of the law. 

Commercial schools will be opened side by side with the 
industrial schools in the larger cities only — perhaps in none other 
than those already equipped with similar schools. In some 
smaller places, commercial classes may be organized in the 
industrial schools. The German states have long been accus- 
tomed to make commercial education a matter of government 
concern. Bavaria, by law of 1873, directed that private com- 
mercial schools should only be erected after the approval of the 
government had been obtained. Saxony decreed likewise in 
1880, and Baden has a similar law. 

The work of the industrial improvement schools in Wuerttem- 
berg has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of a body of in- 
structors who, though very excellent in their special lines (and 
holders perforce of state certificates in proof of this fact), have 
been principally employed in other schools or in business 
vocations, 1 and have carried on the industrial teaching as a side 

J In 1905, there were 654 drawing instructors connected with Wuerttem- 
berg industrial improvement and "women's work" schools, and 952 
teachers of other subjects engaged in these and the commercial improve- 



42 Teachers College Record [392 

issue. Under the new system the standards, ever high, have 
been raised considerably. The teaching of elementary in- 
dustrial subjects has been elevated to the dignity of a profession 
sufficient unto itself. In order that only those with the highest 
qualifications may be permanently placed, it has been considered 
inadvisable to establish the schools on the new basis until pro- 
vision for an even better trained corps of teachers has been made. 
Herein lies the all-important reason for setting the period for the 
principal reconstruction of the industrial improvement schools at 
1909 to 191 2. School boards that anticipate the new regulations 
by petitioning to have their institutions put on the new basis at 
once are frowned upon. Wuerttemberg, a country which has 
afforded the opportunity for elementary vocational teaching 
for several generations, confesses that it has not a force suffi- 
ciently trained to equip the schools under the new standards. 
The excellent vocational instruction of the present is branded 
as wholly inadequate. What is to be done? 

The state, through the Central Bureau for Industry and 
Commerce, and with the co-operation of the Educational 
Ministry, is providing for the further training of a chosen corps 
of teachers, selected by the Higher School Boards. Thirty- 
eight such candidates for the industrial improvement schools 
were sent to the Normal Training Division for Industrial Teachers 
of the Grand Ducal Building Trades School of Karlsruhe, 
Baden, in 1906, and twenty or more other individuals will be 
added to the number each year until a full and sufficient quota 
has been obtained. About one hundred such trained instructors 
are needed for the first year of the operation of the new law. 
The candidates sent to Karlsruhe are from the best of the men 
teachers in the common schools, as a rule, though the "realistic" 
schools and expert practitioners are also represented in the lot. 
The ages are twenty-six to thirty. At Karlsruhe the course is 

merit schools. Only a few of the teachers of drawing (20 men and 2 
women) alone, were chiefly occupied in these schools. The others were 
performing the work as a secondary occupation (Nebenamt), The handi- 
crafts associations of Wuerttemberg were unanimously in favor of chang- 
ing these conditions so that the great majority of the teachers of the 
industrial improvement schools — especially in the larger towns and cities 
— should be permanently appointed (in Hauptami) by the state to devote 
their chief attention to this work. Under the new law this is a settled 
policy. 



393] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 43 

three and one-half years in duration. The candidates from 
among the teachers have already had the pedagogical training 
of a normal school course. The men are also obliged to spend 
six months in practical work. This is done during the vacation 
months — August and September — of the ensuing summers. 

The choosing of common-school teachers, for the most part, 
for this work is rather the outcome of reasons of expediency than 
of any other causes. Skilled practitioners in the vocations, men 
at the same time of- broad intelligence, who would make good 
instructors, are equally desirable but harder to get. Such men 
would be obliged to take a course of at least one year in ped- 
agogical subjects, whereas the ordinary teacher, lacking thorough 
technical training in vocational subjects, is obliged to attend a 
higher vocational school for three and one-half years, with an 
added six months of practical working experience. In Prussia, 
teachers have been prepared for vocational instructing in three 
or four months, but the Wuerttemberg employers of skilled 
labor would not agree to this. They desire that the teachers 
shall be practical in the highest degree, since they (the em- 
ployers) must make sacrifices under the new law. The can- 
didates at Karlsruhe receive an annual stipend of $240 from the 
Wuerttemberg government, a sum quite sufficient for their 
actual needs, since living expenses and tuition are low, and the 
two capitals are only two hours apart by fast express. 

It is natural to ask why the industrial teachers do not receive 
their higher training at the Building Trades School of Stuttgart, 
a school which in many particulars is rated as the best of its 
kind in Germany. The answer is not far to seek. It is not in 
disparagement of the work of the Stuttgart Building Trades 
School — many of whose graduates are already in vocational 
teaching in Wuerttemberg — that the candidates are sent to an 
adjoining state, but simply because Karlsruhe has developed 
an unusually good Normal Training Department (established in 
1882) and is better equipped for undertaking the preparation 
of teachers of elementary industrial subjects. The Stuttgart 
school does not seem to care to undertake this work. At Karls- 
ruhe those in the Normal Department also take up subjects in 
the Electrical, Mechanical, or Constructive Engineering Depart- 
ments, according to the specialty chosen. In addition the 
students have extended courses in higher mathematics, physics, 



44 Teachers College Record [394 

descriptive geometry, industrial drawing, and designing. Stu- 
dents entering the Normal Division are required to have had a 
common normal school course, or the equivalent of the sixth 
year's course of a "middle school." The earliest age for entrance 
is eighteen. Graduates of a normal school must have taught, 
also, and must produce evidence that they have worked at in- 
dustrial employment for at least eight weeks. Others are 
required to show evidence of at least six months' practical work, 
The matriculation fee at Karlsruhe has been $1.20; the tuition. 
$7.20 per semester; the laboratory fee, $4.80 per half-year. 

The teachers intended for the reorganized commercial im- 
provement schools will be sent to such German* universities^ as 
Leipzig, which is especially strong in commercial subjects, for 
their training. Also, a preparatory course for such teachers, of 
about three semesters in duration, was "established ; at Stutt- 
gart in the spring of 1907. Commercial teaching candidates 
will be selected from among the teachers in Realschulen, or from 
practical workers of rare ability. A few will be sent to America 
for training in commercial school methods. In electrical 
engineering, too, Wuerttemberg is looking to the United States 
for ideas, and already has a student teacher here, with others 
to follow. 

In the future, as in the past, drawing will be by all odds the 
most important subject taught in the industrial schools. In 
both industrial and commercial schools the other basic subjects 
will continue to be: (1) Arithmetic (industrial or commercial); 
(2) German (including business correspondence and forms, 
suited to the special school) ; (3) bookkeeping (industrial or 
commercial). With these as a basis, the instruction will be 
differentiated in the necessary directions. As far back as 1889, 
the subjects studied most were free-hand drawing and paint- 
ing — taken by 50 per cent, of the students in the 168 industrial 
improvement schools for men in Wuerttemberg at the time ; in- 
dustrial arithmetic, 35 per cent.; German (including business 
forms, etc.), 32 per cent.; special technical drawing, 29 per cent.; 
geometrical drawing, 21 per cent. At the same time, in the 168 
industrial and commercial improvement schools, the 1 5 industrial 
improvement schools for women, and the 16 "women's work" 
schools, instruction was given in the following subjects in the 
number of schools indicated by the figures: industrial arithmetic, 



395] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 45 

142; commercial arithmetic, 19; geometry and geometrical com- 
putation, 33; descriptive geometry, 76; geometrical drawing, 
152; special technical drawing, 138; free-hand drawing, 179; 
theory of style and color, 4; modelling and woodcarving, 22; 
engraving and chiselling, 3 ; physics, 47 ; chemistry, 5 ; engineer- 
ing, 3; mother tongue (esp. business forms), 152; penmanship 
and orthography, 60 ; stenography, 7 ; industrial bookkeeping, 
99; commercial bookkeeping, 12; exchange, 6; French, 38; 
English, 19; Italian, 2 ; politico-economic subjects, 34; com- 
mercial geography and history, 20; German literature, 6; house- 
keeping materials, 2; hygiene, 2. The various subjects were 
still further differentiated into courses intended for single or 
allied industries. 

The program of the Stuttgart Industrial School at the present 
time, one of the best of its kind, is outlined in another chapter. 
When the new plan is in force, what are known as common 
school subjects will be eliminated from the programs wherever 
possible. That is, when arithmetic is taught, it will be in- 
dustrial or commercial arithmetic, and similarly in the case of 
the other subjects. At the time the recent law was enacted an 
effort was made by representatives of the Church to introduce 
obligatory instruction in religion — such as the common schools 
of Wuerttemberg and the other German states require — into 
the programs of the industrial improvement schools, but the 
attempt failed. In general the policy was adopted of excluding 
all general culture subjects. In Baden, Bavaria, and Prussia, 
an effort in the same direction — to exclude the general culture 
subjects from the curriculum of the industrial improvement 
school — has'recently been made. As late as 1 905 Prussia repulsed 
a proposal to introduce the teaching of religion as an obligatory 
subject in the industrial improvement schools. 

The Higher Industrial School Board of Wuerttemberg will insist 
that the instruction given shall be spread over the ten months of 
school if possible, in order that the theory gradually acquired may 
be reinforced step by step through practical work in the industry, 
and that the whole curriculum may not be hurled at the luckless 
students during the off months of the season, when there is 
neither the opportunity for theory and practice to go hand in 
hand, nor the time to grasp thoroughly the instruction offered. 
Effectively opposing the few near-sighted employers who would 



46 Teachers College Record [396 

have the instruction lumped into the dull months of the year 
the Higher Industrial School Board recommends, and will enforce 
in so far as is practicable the provision that instruction shall be 
given throughout ten months at the rate of at least seven hours 
per week, preferably on two afternoons out of each seven days. 
The minimum of 280 hours per year for three years is in lieu of 
the present average Of 180 hours for each of two successive 
years. The practical work is to be done, in general, in the 
workshop of the employer. However, the industrial improve- 
ment schools of the larger towns will be equipped with their own 
workshops, for special purposes. 

The industrial and commercial improvement school boards 
will continue the general policy of demanding a small tuition 
fee, although this will be altogether done away with in a few 
communes. The fees will average only 24 to 48 cents per term 
in the majority of the schools. As it is, the state will have an 
increase in the annual expenditure of about $60,000 to meet, 
according to Minister Weizsaecker, by the year 191 2, when the 
law will be in full operation. This does not include the extra- 
ordinary items appropriated for building. Wuerttemberg has 
for many years paid more per head of population for industrial 
improvement schools than the neighboring states. The central 
apportionment for these institutions a few years ago averaged 
in Wuerttemberg approximately $0.06; in Baden $0.05; in 
Bavaria $0.03 ; in Saxony $.0075. At present the Wuerttemberg 
central government pays out $73,000 to $75,000 a year for the 
industrial and commercial improvement schools and for the 
"women's work" schools. The amount of tuition paid in is 
somewhat less than this and the communal share in the mainten- 
ance is practically the same as that of the state. All three items 
must be added together to give the total expenditure upon the 
schools of this kind. Tuition fees in general have not changed 
materially since i888-'89, when the Stuttgart commercial im- 
provement school demanded $12 to $14 per year, 1 and the 
industrial improvement schools were charging as follows: three 
of them, a tuition of $3.57 to $9.33 yearly; one, $2.86; one, $2.38; 
one $2.15; two, $1.90; three, $1.42; two, $1.19; fourteen, $1.02 

1 Now $3.60 for compulsory course, or $1.44 per single hour weekly- 
running through the year, when subjects are chosen, but in no case to 
xceed $g per year. 



397] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 47 

to $1.25; thirty-six, $0.58 to $0.71; fifty-nine, $0.24 to $0.58; 
forty-five, less than $0.24, or even no charge at all. The chief 
argument advanced in behalf of the tuition fee is its beneficent 
effect on the pupils themselves, who are said to appreciate more 
thoroughly that which they pay for, even if the fee be very small. 
However, the principle of charging a tuition fee is carried out in 
connection with all the public schools of Wuerttemberg, in 
general, of whatever nature. Communes have the power of 
doing away with the tuition, with the approval of the higher 
boards. They are usually expected to assume the deficit that 
such action would cause. Stuttgart has in recent years done 
away with the tuition in the common or "people's" schools. 
In such institutions the tuition is often as low as $0.24 per year, 
and in no case is it what one might term a high fee. 

The question of the increase in efficiency through attendance 
at an industrial or commercial school has long ago been placed 
beyond the pale of doubt in Wuerttemberg. It is now accepted 
as a matter of course, and some statistics gathered at first hand 
from employers, apprentices, and parents, by the present writer* 
confirm the soundness of this belief. In a word, the employers 
are uniformly enthusiastic over the results obtained through 
these schools and the workers are similarly minded. The 
institutions make it possible for all, who are willing, to obtain 
employment. The higher quality of the work that is done 
enables the manufacturers to compete successfully in the 
markets of the world, and even in times of general depression to 
keep their workers employed at a wage which, for Europe, is 
very good, and advances according to skill. For years it has 
been extremely difficult for the few young men who have not 
had the advantages of a vocational school training, and who 
do not show a disposition to avail themselves of its opportunities, 
to obtain work from intelligent employers. As final proof, we 
must remember that the vocational school laws of Wuerttem- 
berg have ever been chiefly instigated by business men, and 
that the recent advanced legislation in this direction is mainly 
the work of employers, guided by the helpful counsel of Pres- 
ident von Mosthaf of the Central Bureau for Industry and 
Commerce, a department of the Interior Ministry in this little 
Kingdom which is in more effective relations with the producing 
interests of the country than any other agency I know of the 



48 Teachers College Record [398 

world over. The Educational Ministry, it might well be said, 
merely furnished the pedagogical trimmings of the Bill. 

Some further discussion of the part taken by the state and 
by the commune in the maintenance of industrial and com- 
mercial improvement schools, and concerning the salaries of 
the individual teachers, the sale of objects manufactured in the 
industrial schools, the attitude of the unions, and kindred topics 
will be found in the succeeding chapters. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF STUTTGART, AND THE COMMERCIAL 

SCHOOLS 

Located in the metropolis of a kingdom that is distinctly in 
the lead for the universality of its elementary industrial train- 
ing, the Stuttgart Industrial Improvement School, as an example 
of a highly developed institution of its kind, is worthy of close 
study. In this industrial center and capital there is every 
advantage for obtaining skilled instructors. And the quality 
of the work done here is not to be measured by the character of 
the plain building — an anomaly in Stuttgart school architecture 
— in which the classes are for the most part housed. That it is 
opportunity that draws students hither is evidenced not alone 
by numbers, but by the earnestness of the work that is done and 
by the attendance of many pupils of advanced years. In 1906, 
1600 men and 346 girls and women were in attendance. The 
commercial improvement school is an institution entirely 
separate in Stuttgart. The Industrial School offers the oppor- 
tunity to fulfil the conditions of the compulsory improvement 
school law, and in addition gives extended courses for all in- 
dustries and ages. For some time it has afforded: (1) day 
courses on working days; (2) evening courses on, the evenings 
of working days; (3) special technical courses for the separate 
trades and industries; and (4) evening courses for girls and 



The Kingdom of Wuerttemberg 

Map showing the location of the Industrial 
Improvement Schools [j 68 for men, and 15 for 
girls and women! and Women's Work' Schools 
(16 m number) m the year I889. Wherever a 
school was attended also by students coming 
from outside the central town, the fact is in- 
dicated by a line connectn\g the two localities. 
Only those towns supporting vocational 
schools are found on this map. 
Wuerttemberg is about the size of New Jersey. 




399] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 49 

women. The evening courses classify into elementary and 
special technical divisions. Pupils under seventeen are at 
present obliged to consult the direction of the school as to 
choice of subjects studied. Any course taken up must be 
continued to the end. Those in the elementary course must 
study all subjects belonging to the division. The compulsory 
improvement school law is at present complied with when a 
pupil is: (1) enrolled in the elementary division; (2) in the 
special technical division, and taking at least 100 hours of 
scientific subjects per year; (3) in the day courses, or in the 
special courses. Pupils are required to be punctual and reg- 
ular in attendance. Fifteen minutes after the session com- 
mences the doors are closed and tardy students are not admitted 
thereafter. But, for that matter, regularity and punctuality 
in attendance have long since become automatic in Wuerttem- 
berg. The courses begin October 1. Summer holiday months 
are August and September. 

The 1600 boys and men in attendance at Stuttgart in 1906 
represented 85 separate trades and ' industries. Only 15 in- 
dividuals had not yet chosen a vocation. The following trades 
and industries were represented in greatest numbers: mechan- 
icians, 175; locksmiths, 171; cabinet-makers, 150; painters, 94; 
upholsterers and paper-hangers, 62; printers, 51; bookbinders, 
49 ; servants and errand boys, 46 ; fine mechanics, 45 ; gardeners, 
43; typesetters, 43; carpenters, 41; electrical engineers, 41; 
architects, 35; sculptors, 33; tinsmiths and braziers, 25; zinc- 
ographers, 24; engravers, 24; lithographers, 23; glaziers, 22; 
masons, 21. Each of the other trades and industries was rep- 
resented by less than twenty. 

In the special technical divisions were 236 male students under 
17, and 270 over 17; in the elementary division, 881 males 
under 17, and only 4 over 17; in the day and special courses, 
158 males under 17, and 51 above that age. Fifty-eight pupils 
came regularly from beyond the city limits. 

The following table, showing the training received by the 
1946 students in the Stuttgart Industrial School, prior to their 
confirmation in the church, is interesting as indicating the source 
of those engaged in industrial occupations: 



5° 



Teachers College Record 



[400 



Pupils Enrolled 


Common 
School 


Middle 

and 
' * Buer- 
ger "- 
School 


Real- 
School 


Latin 
School 
and 
Gym- 
nasium 


Higher 
Girls' 
School 


Total 


In the Special Tech- 
nical Division 

In the Elementary 
Division 

In the Day and Spe- 
cial Courses 

In the Courses for 
Girls and Wo- 
men 


353 
822 

155 
208 


74 

33 
27 

21 


66 
26 
23 


13 
4 
4 


117 


506 

885 
209 

346 


Totals 


'1,538 


*55 


115 


21 


117 


1,946 



It will be seen that fully 79 per cent, of the industrial pupils 
are from the common schools, and about one per cent, had early 
training in a classical school for boys. 

The day courses are divided into : (a) the instruction given 
in the public drawing salon for free-hand drawing, industrial 
art drawing, and decorative painting; (b) afternoon instruction; 
(c) instruction in water color. 

Each subject in the first-mentioned division is given in two 
courses, the one throughout the year and the other a six months' 
course from October to May, exclusive. The drawing salon is 
open daily from 8 a.m. to 12 m., and from 2 p.m. to 4.30 p.m., 
Saturday afternoon excepted. The public drawing salon is 
found in the larger towns of Wuerttemberg. The instructors 
have their studios in adjoining rooms, and inspect and direct as 
needed the individual work that is being done by pupils in the 
larger hall. The instruction given in free-hand drawing in the 
Stuttgart day course is intended for advanced pupils. That 
given in special technical drawing presupposes practical voca- 
tional experience. The ten months' course was given to 15 
pupils in 1906, and the six months' course to 8 pupils. The 
tuition in this division is $2.40 to $3.57 per semester (depend- 
ing on time of entrance) for all subjects. The day courses in 
technical drawing are for carpenters, stone cutters, masons, 
locksmiths, and gardeners — geometrical and projective drawing 
with reference to the trade concerned. Then comes the working 



401] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 5 1 

out of plans and working drawings in accordance with models 
and sketches taken as subject-matter. 

The afternoon instruction is given on four week-days from 
5 to 7 p.m., and on one from 4 to 7 p.m. All branches of free- 
hand drawing are taught, as also arithmetic, composition, and 
bookkeeping. Tuition $1.20 to $2.40 per semester, giving 
access to all subjects. 

The evening courses have hitherto been divided into an 
elementary division and a higher technical department. The 
former was especially intended for pupils coming under the 
provisions of the industrial improvement law, and will in the 
course of events be transferred to the daytime. The instruction 
was given in 1906 during the six winter months, from 7 to 9 
p.m., in two successive yearly courses (to be increased to three). 
In the first course, those pupils engaged in industrial pursuits are 
received at the age of fourteen directly after their confirmation in 
the church, and subsequent release from the common schools. 
In the second course are either graduates of the first, or pupils 
who have elsewhere received the requisite instruction. Pupils 
of the elementary division are obliged to take all the subjects in 
a given yearly course. For bakers, waiters, cooks, butchers, 
musicians, dentists, clerks, vintners, coachmen, servants, and 
errand boys the instruction in drawing is optional. The 
elementary courses prepare for the special technical courses. 
The tuition is $1.43 per year. The first year's course was given 
in 19 parallel classes in 1906, with two hours each weekly in free- 
hand drawing, geometric drawing, industrial arithmetic, and 
composition, and one hour each per week in bookkeeping and 
penmanship. The average number in each one of the parallel 
classes was 27. The second year's course was given in 16 par- 
allel classes, averaging 21 each, with two hours weekly in pro- 
jective drawing, arithmetic, and composition, four in free-hand 
drawing, and one in bookkeeping. A course without drawing 
(with civil government added) was given to 29 pupils. 

The courses of the "technical" division, in the evening, offer 
the opportunity for intensified instruction along higher special 
lines. Pupils of this division, whose age is seventeen or more, 
and who are sufficiently prepared, may. choose their own sub- 
jects. Instruction is given in the months from October to May, 
exclusive, from 7 to 9 p.m. The instruction in drawing and 



52 Teachers College Record [402 

modelling, however, is continued throughout the year. Tuition is 
$2.40 for six or eight months, and somewhat less for fractional 
periods. On the list of subjects are: free-hand drawing, or- 
namental drawing, blackboard sketching, modelling, geometrical 
drawing, projective and descriptive geometry, from two to six 
hours each per week; mechanical drawing (6), business forms 
(2), industrial arithmetic (4), elementary geometry (4), engineer- 
ing (4), physics (4), electrotechnics (4), French (6), ornamental 
penmanship (2), industrial art ornamentation and style (2), 
industrial bookkeeping (1), stenography (1), penmanship (1), 
civic instruction (1), and industrial drawing (4 to 6). The last- 
named subject is taught in five divisions and eight classes as 
follows: (a) For cabinet-makers, glaziers, turners, tinsmiths, 
etc.; (b) for architects, carpenters, stone-cutters, and masons; 
(c) for locksmiths, etc.; (d) for skilled mechanics, electricians, 
and watchmakers; (e) for upholsterers, paper-hangers, and 
decorators. 

Under the heading of special technical work, courses are 
established for gardeners, printers, and compositors, with 
especial reference to the needs of such students. The courses 
for printers and compositors are given in the daytime (from 7 
to 10 a.m.) and the courses for gardeners partly during the day 
(Sunday, 10.30 a.m. to 12.30 p.m.) and partly during the evening 
(on work-days, from 7 to 9 p.m.) The former courses continue 
throughout the ten months, whereas the instruction for gar- 
deners is of only four months' duration. Tuition $1.20 and 
$1.44, respectively. The gardeners study drawing, painting, 
composition, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and penman- 
ship. The courses for printers and compositors are of two years, 
duration, and comprise work in Latin and French (for compos- 
itors), German, bookkeeping, industrial arithmetic, and drawing. 

The courses for girls and women are given in a " scientific " 
and an industrial art division. The "scientific" department 
affords the regular industrial improvement work for girls and 
women, whereas a special industrial art division occupies the 
place that is filled for the other sex by the Industrial Art School. 
In the scientific division, composition, bookkeeping, arithmetic, 
and penmanship must be taken together. The other subjects — 
French, geometric drawing, stenography, English, geography, 
history, hygiene, and German literature — are optional. The 



403] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 53 

instruction lasts throughout six months except in the case of 
the language subjects, which extend over eight months. On 
work-days the instruction is given between 2 and 6.30 p.m. 
The group subjects named above were taught in 1906 in eight 
divisions, with a total attendance of 210. Each of the four 
subjects required two hours weekly, except penmanship, one 
hour. 

The industrial art division for girls and women is established 
in a separate building, but like the scientific division is under 
the same management and direction (Rector) as the department 
for men. A large proportion of the students of the industrial 
art division for girls undertake the work for their own pleasure, 
although many of the graduates find profitable employment in 
art industries, and others, after a four years' course, take the 
state examinations and become teachers of drawing or of in- 
dustrial art. The winter course extends over six months, and 
the summer course for four. The instruction is given in the 
daytime. The tuition depends on the subjects chosen, but 
cannot exceed $6. A workshop, for practical application of 
the theory learned in the classroom, is attached to the institution. 
Fine lacework, wood-carving, and the making of pottery are 
the principal subjects for practical effort. The pupils pay for 
the colors. Other materials are furnished gratis. Some of the 
products are sold for the profit of the school, but the amount 
made in this way is small. Such sales occasion no adverse 
comment on the part of those regularly employed, as the school 
does not manufacture articles in large quantities. It is all 
individual work, done by hand. Pupils are paid a percentage 
on what is sold. Courses are given in this division in elementary 
geometrical drawing, projective geometry, perspective, free 
hand, the study of draperies, industrial art drawing and paint- 
ing, landscape drawing and water color, wood carving, art em- 
broidery, ceramic art and painting on glass, studies of the state 
collections, sketching in the Industrial Museum and in the Royal 
Cabinet of Natural Curiosities, figure drawing, drawing from the 
nude, theory of ornamental and architectural structure, and the 
history of art. 

An examination of the official programs discloses the fact 
that thirty -six of the instructors (out of about 125) in the division 
for male students of the Industrial School of Stuttgart and 



54 Teachers College Record [404 

three instructors in the division for girls and women are skilled 
individuals engaged in the active practice of the chosen work, in 
addition to teaching. Among the other instructors are a few 
principals of Real- and common schools, a few i^aZ-school 
teachers, and a larger number of instructors from the common 
schools. All are specialists. 

The fifteen industrial improvement schools and divisions for 
girls and women in 1905, in Wuerttemberg, enrolled 1042 
pupils. The number of these institutions is about the same as 
it was twenty years ago. However, the "industry schools" for 
girls enroll upwards of twice as many now as then, and are 
much more efficient. A larger number of the female sex also 
go in for the "women's work" schools, which have a total enrol- 
ment over six times as great as that of the industrial improve- 
ment schools and divisions for girls and women. Opportunities 
for higher commercial instruction are offered in the higher girls' 
schools. 

Summary of the chief events in the history of the Stuttgart 
Industrial School: In 1825, the Sunday Industrial School opened 
in two separate parts of the city, and united, 1828. Evening 
Industrial Improvement School established, 1854. Separate 
division for girls and women (first in kingdom under public 
schools system) opened 1861. Day courses for male students 
grew out of earlier "public drawing salon" courses of the Central 
Bureau for Industry and Commerce, and have been an integral 
part of the City Industrial School since 1879. Elementary 
division organized, 1883. 

The receipts and expenditures of the Stuttgart Industrial 
School, in the estimates for 1906, were as follows: Income from 
tuition, $4308; expenditures, $36,607.72 (salaries $30,788.84; 
other maintenance, $5818.88). The city paid special items 
(tuition remitted, etc.), to the amount of $785.60, and the bal- 
ance, $31,514.12, was paid for equally by the city and by the 
state. There were nearly 3150 industrial school pupils in the 
greater city. Leaving the expenditures of the state out of con- 
sideration, the average cost per pupil to the city itself was about 
$6.71 in the older city, $3.57 in the included suburb of Unter- 
tuerkheim, and $2.32 in the newly annexed Cannstatt. 

The principal of the Stuttgart Industrial School is paid a 
salary of $1024 per year, with additional "indemnities" amount- 



405] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 55 

ing to $190. Next to the principal, the instructor in charge 
of the public drawing salon receives the highest salary — only 
$1095 per year. The instructors are in general paid according 
to the number of hours taught, at the usual rate of about $0.75 
per hour (in Stuttgart), ascending to $0.85 or in rare cases to 
about $1.00 per hour. These prices seem very low in comparison 
with American rates, but compare very favorably with other 
pay in a country where living expenses are low. The usual pay 
in the general or Sunday improvement schools in Wuerttemberg 
is $0.24 per hour. 

The commercial improvement schools in Wuerttemberg are 
five in number — at Stuttgart, Cannstatt, Esslingen, Heilbronn, 
and Ludwigsburg. Besides these there are commercial divisions 
in connection with 17 industrial improvement schools of the 
kingdom. The school at Stuttgart is the most important 
one. It was founded in 1854, and was taken over by the city in 
1892. The most interesting fact in its regard is that it became 
a compulsory school in 1905. Like three of the other cities hav- 
ing commercial improvement institutions, Stuttgart passed a 
local law making all young men under 18 years of age engaged 
n commercial pursuits liable for attendance during three years 
at the institution named. The state law of 1906 included the 
commercial workers in the general compulsory law which goes 
into full effect from 1909 to 1912. The Stuttgart commercial 
improvement school will have its third year added to the com- 
pulsory course in 1907. The attendance required is six to eight 
hours per week, depending upon the year of the course. The 
minimum will be the same as for the industrial improvement 
schools after 1909. Merchants in Stuttgart express their dis- 
pleasure at being obliged to do without their employees for the 
required time each week, but it is evident that the sentiment is 
becoming more favorable to the new regime with the lapse of 
time. The employers are obliged to pay the tuition of their 
apprentices of the statutory age. The amount is only $3.57 
per year. 

The school is coeducational and has about one thousand 
pupils, of whom about seventy are girls. The latter are said 
to be very diligent pupils. The students are housed in one 
building, instead of being divided among several as in the case 
of the industrial improvement school. In addition to the day 



56 Teachers College Record [406 

courses for compulsory subjects there are optional courses given 
in the mornings (6 to 7 in summer, and 7 to 8 in winter) and 
evenings (7 to 9). Summer holidays extend from July 25 to 
September 5. The compulsory students may be freed from 
attendance if they frequent another school of equal rank in 
commercial subjects, or whenever they are able to pass the final 
examinations. Non-attendance is punishable by fines — up to 
$36 in cash, or four weeks in prison. Note that the fines are 
levied against the employer, parent, or guardian responsible for 
the non-attendance. 

The lower year of the compulsory division contains three 
subjects, each requiring two hours per week. They are: busi- 
ness penmanship, mother tongue, and commercial arithmetic- 
In the middle year, courses are given in commerce, commercial 
correspondence, commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The 
higher course is to be established in 1907-08. Elective sub- 
jects are: German style, French, English, Italian, French 
commercial correspondence, English commercial correspond- 
ence, commercial geography and commercial history, com- 
mercial and exchange law, political economy, tariff, stenog- 
raphy, drawing, and physics. The subjects of the compulsory 
division may also be elected. There are twelve classes in French 
and five in English at present. Tuition for the electives is $1.43 
per week hour carried through the year, with a maximum 
charge of $8.57 per annum. Because of the higher tuition 
charges, the deficit in the budget of the Stuttgart commercial 
school, in 1906, was, in proportion to attendance, much smaller 
than that of the industrial school. The tuition for the former 
institution amounted to about $6000, and the final deficit 
paid by the city was about $5000. To this add the $500 deficit 
of Cannstatt. The state's share in the maintenance is on the 
same basis as in the case of the industrial improvement schools. 
The Higher Commercial School (or College) of Stuttgart is 
an institution occupying in the three years of its lower courses 
the same rank as a Wuerttemberg Real- school with a six years' 
course, and in the particular alone that it is authorized to give 
a certificate, upon completion of the lower division, releasing 
from all but one year of military service, it is under the super- 
vision of the Ministerial Division for Higher Schools. Otherwise 
it is a private school administered by a body of merchants and 



407] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 57 

industrialists. While the lower division is entitled to add but a 
few special commercial subjects, the higher department affords 
a thorough theoretical training for commercial pursuits. The 
school receives a state subsidy of $500 annually, and a city grant 
of $300. The tuition is $37.50 to $75 per annum. The institu- 
tion was founded in 187 1 with 25 students in attendance. 
There were about 125 at the time of the last report — a fifth of 
them in the higher division. Similar schools without state 
support are found in Calw, Kirchheim, and Ulm. They are 
allowed to prepare for the granting of the special military 
certificate. 

CHAPTER V 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, AND THE CENTRAL BUREAU FOR 

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 

It has been seen that the lowest form of industrial training 
in the Wuerttemberg school system is that of the "industry 
school" — the name for the industrial instruction given in the 
common or "people's" schools, chiefly to girls. For boys, the 
manual training in the common schools is confined mainly to 
drawing. Together with the opportunities offered in the lower 
grades of the Real- schools this represents nearly all that is done 
by the state in the direction of industrial or commercial instruc- 
tion for those under fourteen years of age. Up to this period the 
industrial teaching is systematic, but somewhat restricted in 
point of time. Each species of school in the Wuerttemberg 
system has a very special purpose. That of the common schools 
is thorough instruction in religion, and together with this a 
comprehensive grounding in the "three R's." The authorities 
insist that this program shall be adhered to, and that the purpose 
of the common schools shall not be defeated by the introduction 
of an undue amount of vocational instruction. Early differentia- 
tion of courses is brought about in the choice of a school, the 
"realistic" type of institution introducing early the study of 
modern languages, more mathematics and science, whereas the 
gymnasial type begins early with the classical languages. Both 
are altogether different from the common schools, yet none of 
these schools gives early vocational instruction. The proposal to 
introduce "preparatory industrial schools," such as may be in- 



58 Teachers College Record [408 

stanced by the Imperial Handwerkerschulen of Austria, or the 
"pupil's workshops for the eighth classes" of the boys' schools in 
Munich, admitting students from the age of twelve, has not met 
with favor in Wuerttemberg, although for nearly thirty years the 
state and the city of Stuttgart have subsidized a private venture 
of this kind in the metropolis — the Ritter Industrial Preparatory 
School. This institution receives pupils at the early age of 
eleven, and affords them opportunity for training in industrial 
drawing and theoretical subjects until they enter upon the 
active practice of an industry. Practical manual training in 
wood and metal working, which forms a feature in the curricula 
of the Austrian and Bavarian schools cited, is not found in the 
program of the "Ritter" establishment. 

The industrial and commercial improvement schools, already 
described, take pupils under the compulsory law up to the age 
of eighteen, and in the larger localities offer optional courses in 
special technical subjects for all individuals, having the pre- 
requisite training, who wish to attend. Similar in technical 
rank are the "women's work" schools. With the exception of 
two or three which are under the auspices of unions, they are 
communal institutions, and like the industrial and commercial 
improvement schools are under the Royal Commission for 
Industrial Improvement Schools, and receive state as well as 
communal support. The Royal Commission is as it were a 
committee of the Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 
(Interior Department), although nominally under the control 
of the Educational Ministry. The influential President of the 
Central Bureau presides over the Royal Commission (and its 
successor the Higher Industrial School Council). Its offices are 
in the magnificent Royal State Industrial Museum, (see 
frontispiece) the triumphant creation and the headquarters of 
the Central Bureau, as well as the abode of the Royal Com- 
mission for Agriculture, in charge of the agricultural schools. 
Directly under the Central Bureau come the middle industrial 
schools — the special technical institutions (mono-technical) for 
the textile industry, weaving, embroidery, watchmaking, electro- 
technics and fine mechanics, and other industries, and special 
courses given by experts under its auspices. The Building 
Trades School, Industrial Art School, and Technical College are 
directly under the Educational Ministry. 



409] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 59 

The purpose of "women's work" schools is to train grown 
girls and women in the field indicated by the title of the insti- 
tutions. The work in these schools includes everything from 
plain sewing to artistic embroidery requiring the skill that is 
exacted of those in industrial positions or of instructors in these 
subjects. There are 33 of these schools in the kingdom, and in 
1905 they enrolled 6858 students. Drawing is the basis for 
all work done here. The "women's work" schools originated 
in Reutlingen. The first one grew out of the embroidering of a 
flag designed by a local artist, in 1863. When the work of em- 
broidering the standard was attempted the artist found that 
his designs were not comprehended by the women assigned to 
the task. Nor did the artist understand all the features of the 
practical side involved. As a result, a short course in drawing 
was given to those women who became interested. Soon in- 
structors were secured to give courses in embroidery, crocheting, 
and knitting. When in 1865 the industrial stress made it 
difficult for the workers to spare the necessary time, the Central 
Bureau came to their relief by affording stipends for attendance. 
In 1868, an "industrial drawing school for grown girls," with 
a six-months course, was established. Not until the following 
year were the drawing and the practical instruction united in a 
satisfactory manner. Within five years, as many classes — for 
plain needlework, machine stitching, dressmaking, knitting, and 
embroidery — were established. Courses in bookkeeping, corre- 
spondence, and commercial arithmetic were also adjoined. 
The Central Bureau equipped the school with up-to-date ma- 
chines. From about this time the present name was adopted. 
The Reutlingen school established a training department, soon 
to be visited by students from other German states and abroad. 
Other "women's work" schools were established throughout 
Wuerttemberg, the cities and towns and the state each taking 
a share in the maintenance. 

The local common councils name the members of the special 
board for each of these schools, and the Royal Commission desig- 
nates the chairman. The state pays from one fourth to one 
third of the deficit in the budget of each school. The total 
expenditure for such purposes from the capital is $10,000 to 
$12,000 annually. Tuition is $3 to $5 for all-day instruction 
throughout a three-months course, $2 to $3.50 for morning or 



60 Teachers College Record [410 

afternoon instruction during a quarter, and corresponding rates 
for a lesser period. Sewing machines are sometimes rented. 

The program of the Stuttgart school (under the control of 
the "Swabian Women's Union, " and with city and state sub- 
sidy) includes the various features of the following subjects: 
plain sewing, mending, machine stitching, dressmaking, pattern 
cutting, industrial work, embroidery, geometrical drawing, 
free hand drawing, industrial art drawing, pedagogy, and methods. 
This school, like the one at Reutlingen, prepares candidates for 
the state examinations for instructors in women's handiwork. 
Three kinds of state certificates are issued: (1) the lower certifi- 
cate, qualifying for the giving of instruction in the women's 
handiwork subjects and in the required drawing connected 
therewith, in the middle schools and higher girls' schools; (2) 
the higher certificate, admitting to teach in the "women's work" 
schools; and (3) the certificates issued for the special subjects, 
dressmaking, embroidery, and drawing, and available in the 
"women's work" schools. The higher and special examinations 
come under the jurisdiction of the Royal Commission, whereas 
the lower certificate test is supervised by a representative of 
the Educational Ministry. Candidates for the higher certificate 
and the special certificate in dressmaking must show proof of 
having spent two years in preparation since obtaining the lower 
certificate, and those examined for the special certificate in 
embroidery and drawing must give evidence of a further twelve- 
months study in addition to the above. For the lower certificate 
examination, the candidate must be at least eighteen years of 
age, and is required to pass satisfactorily in all the details of 
the following subjects: practical skill in knitting, crocheting, 
stitching, hemming, underwear manufacture, mending, linen- 
marking, and simple machine stitching, drawing of plain orna- 
ment, German composition, arithmetic, and methods in the teach- 
ing of handiwork. The subjects of the higher examination are: 
fine sewing, machine stitching, dressmaking, lacemaking and 
embroidery, geometrical and free-hand drawing, and German 
composition. In each examination there is an oral quiz on the 
practical work. The special certificate in dressmaking is issued 
after a satisfactory showing in the details of designing and the 
making of the more difficult costumes. Likewise the test in 
special embroidery and drawing requires an expert knowledge 



41 1] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 61 

and practical skill in these lines as applied to the general field. 
In drawing, for instance, the history of art, method in the teach- 
ing of drawing, and the theory of ornamentation are added to 
the previous stipulations. The scholastic requirements are low. 
The salaries of instructors in women's handiwork appear to be 
very moderate. In Cannstatt, for example, the instructors in 
the "women's work" school commence with an annual salary 
of $240. The present head of the school is paid $360, and the 
highest salaries possible in this locality are $360 for regular 
instructors and $410 for the principal. In the "industry school" 
work in the heart of Stuttgart salaries appear to be about $25 
less for corresponding positions. 

Of the mono-technical schools under the higher supervision 
of the Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce, by far the 
most important is the Technicum for the Weaving Industry, at 
Reutlingen. Its purpose is to furnish opportunity for the 
thorough theoretical and practical training of textile experts, 
manufacturers and factory superintendents, pattern designers, 
and master workmen in spinning and weaving, as well as to 
familiarize workers in the textile industry with the best machines 
for use in textile manufacture, and their care, and to afford to 
young merchants the training essential for the buying and selling 
of raw materials, yarn and other goods. The buildings are the 
property of the commune of Reutlingen. The direct super- 
vision is in the hands of the Reutlingen Weaving Association, 
and is exercised through a supervisory council consisting of 
members of this body and the director of the schools. 

The South German Cotton Manufacturers' Association takes 
a lively interest in the welfare of the institution, and is repre- 
sented on its board of trustees, to which belong also the mayor 
of Reutlingen, the president of the Central Bureau, and the 
chairman of the local weaving association. From 140 to 150 
students are constantly in attendance. The faculty numbers 
nine regular instructors, including the director, who also lectures 
at the Technische Hochschule, and there are besides seven master 
workmen to assist in the giving of instruction. The institution 
is in full operation from 7 to 12 m. and from 1 to 6 p.m. 

At the disposal of the students is a fine technical library, and 
a remarkable collection of materials and models that is kept 



62 Teachers College Record [412 

up-to-date through close relations with the State Industrial 
Museum at Stuttgart. Frequent class visits to shops and 
factories, and the opportunities of the Reutlingen Industrial 
Improvement School for the study of modern languages, natural 
science, mathematics, and commercial branches, afford special 
facilities for study. Students entering must be at least 16 years 
of age, with a previous education equivalent to that of the com- 
mon school. October is the usual entrance month. The courses 
given are: 

(1) Spinning, one year; theoretical and practical instruction 
in the spinning of cotton and woolen goods. Tuition, $60 for 
German citizens and twice as much for foreigners. An extra 
half-year, for Germans only, requiring three years' practical 
experience for entrance, is given as a "master's course." 

(2) Weaving, one half-year theoretical, and one half-year 
with practical application. The second semester, open only 
to Germans, presupposes three years of practical work, and is 
intended for weaving masters. The two half-years may be 
taken at once by those who have finished the course in spin- 
ning. Tuition same as above, but doubled if two semesters are 
combined. 

(3) Operation. A course of one year, the first half theoretical, 
dealing with materials, etc., the second half with practice in the 
operation of looms, etc., and with knitting. Tuition as above. 
For Germans there is a further three-months course in practical 
work. 

(4) Pattern designing. A two-years course in decorative 
painting and designing, with practical application to the weav- 
ing industry, with instruction as to use of machines, and other 
necessary details. Those students in the spinning, weaving, and 
operation courses are given instruction in mechanics, the use 
of machines, mechanical drawing, and textile chemistry, as well 
as in the various subjects which come more directly within the 
sphere of their courses. All students are instructed in raw 
materials, and have access to the technological laboratory. 
Certificates are issued upon examination at the end of each 
year. Students pay $10 75 to $17.85 per month for private 
board and lodging. The state contributes about $10,000 annu- 
ally to the support of the Technicum, and the city of Reutlingen 
pays the greater part of the remaining deficit. The weaving 



413] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 63 

association markets the products of the shops in so far as 
they are salable. 

Several other weaving schools of lesser grade, and confined 
more closely to one branch of the industry, are under the pro- 
tection of the Central Bureau. They are intended rather as 
apprenticeship schools and pay especial attention to the de- 
velopment of local industries. Attended by from twenty to 
ninety pupils each year, they receive annual appropriations from 
the Central Bureau of from $110 to $2400 (besides machinery 
and materials) and are located at Heidenheim (handloom weav- 
ing of cotton), Laichingen (linen damask industry of the Swabian 
Alps), Sindelfingen (Jacquard weaving of cotton) and Sontheim 
(weaving workshop for production of smooth linen cloth). 
Wolfschlugen, near Stuttgart, has an embroidery school under 
similar control, for the development of the household industry 
in hand embroidery, for which the locality is famous. Likewise 
the lace-making school at Koengen receives state support. 
Several small industrial schools of similar purpose are entirely 
in the control of merchants, societies, and private individuals, 
without aid from the state; such, for example, as the Laichingen 
School for Hand and Machine Embroidery, under the auspices 
of a stock company, and the South German Tailoring Academy in 
Stuttgart. 

At the town Schwenningen, situated in a section of Wuerttem- 
berg that is almost enclosed by Baden and which lies not so very 
far from Switzerland, is the Technical School for Skilled Me- 
chanicians, which includes courses in watch- and clock-making 
and electro-mechanical work. Unlike the other technical in- 
stitutions described above, this is a purely state school. Here 
the ordinary conditions are reversed, and the commune pays 
the state a yearly appropriation of about $500 toward the main- 
tenance. When the building was first erected and equipped 
the commune paid over to the state $13,090, and a Schwen- 
ningen merchant contributed $2400 toward the enterprise- 
The annual appropriation of the state is about $9000. The 
school was established in 1900, and has grown rapidly (about 
seventy pupils now). It takes the place of apprenticeship. 
The aim is to prepare skilled workmen, foremen, and independent 
industrialists in the various branches that come within its scope. 
A further unique feature is that the institution is also destined 



64 Teachers College Record [414 

to furnish the Central Bureau expert advice and reports, and 
duplicate models — all to be used for the promotion of the in- 
dustries concerned, in Wuerttemberg. 

The faculty consists of the director, one other principal in- 
structor, three assistant teachers, and four master workmen. 
These with the mayor and two representatives of industry make 
up the local school committee. Instruction is given in a threel 
years course, and an additional improvement course of one year 
for those who already have the journeyman's certificate, and who 
have done practical work for at least two years. Entrance to 
the first year of the regular course is by examination. Candi- 
dates are required to be at least fourteen years of age and to 
have completed a course of training equivalent to that of the 
common school. The final examinations of the first and second 
years are the entrance tests for the succeeding terms. The 
examination at the end of the third year gives to the successfu- 
candidates (11 skilled mechanics and 4 watchmakers in 1906) a 
certificate permitting them to undertake the direction of appren- 
tices, and the final examination for the improvement course is 
equivalent to the state test for master workmen (4 skilled me- 
chanics successful in 1906). Tuition, $6 annually for Germans, 
$24 for foreigners. "Guests" and "listeners" are also admitted 
to certain courses, by paying the fee. The total cost of board, 
lodging, and school tuition and expenses for a German resident 
is from $95 to $167 per annum. The school begins in May, 
Summer holidays are August 15 to September 15. Nearly all 
the materials used in the school are furnished gratis to the pupils. 
The products of the institution are retained by it. (Further 
description and the program omitted). 

The Technical School for the Book Printing Trades, at 
Stuttgart, is under the auspices of the Union of Proprietors of 
Book Printing Establishments in that city, but receives about 
$500 yearly from the state and the municipality respectively. 
The balance of an annual expenditure of some $2500 is borne 
by the Union. Tuition fees are $3 per annum for apprentices 
— one half of this to be paid by the employers. The members 
of the Union have obligated themselves to send their apprentices 
to this school. Others may attend also. The school is not 
destined to take the place of apprenticeship, but to complete 
and augment the practical shopwork. It is attended chiefly 



415] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 65 

by pupils in the third and fourth years of their apprenticeship, 
since during the first and second years they attend the printing 
division of the City Industrial School. Courses are given in the 
Technical School on two evenings of the week, from 6 to 8 or 
from 7 to 9. There are about 108 pupils, almost equally divided 
between the sections for typesetting and for presswork. 

The Apprenticeship Workshop for the Tanning Industry 
(1906), at Metzingen, is intended to take the place of apprentice- 
ship and to prepare foremen for this vocational field. The 
special instruction has been arranged for in connection with a 
private industry, and it is left to the head of that industry to 
furnish the necessary materials and to sell the product. The 
course is three years in duration, but the theoretical instruction 
of the first two years is given in connection with the local in- 
dustrial improvement school. The state makes an annual grant 
of $1700. 

The Technical School for the Working of Precious Metals, 
at Gmuend, is the creation of the present year (1907). It has 
some of the features of an industrial art school. As at Schwen- 
ningen, the greater part of the product will be kept for exhibition 
purposes. The most of the remainder will be remelted. Like 
the other special technical institutions this is a day school. 

The sale of the products of the various state schools, on the 
whole, amounts to very little. There is not much opposition 
to such sale, on the part of unions or employers. In the interest 
of the schools the product must constantly change in character,, 
so as to give diversity of experience to the students. This action 
forestalls any possible wholesale production. There is no ob- 
jection whatever to the sale of objects made by hand. 

To complete the list of lower industrial schools under the 
Central Bureau, it is only necessary to add the names of the Prac- 
tical Engraving School at Heilbronn and of the Winter Building 
Trades Schools at Biberach and Heilbronn, which still form a 
part of the industrial improvement schools of those localities. 
Some industries not represented by a school are nevertheless 
aided by means of special courses given through the agency of 
the Central Bureau. The carriage industry is unimportant in 
Wuerttemberg. There is no school for shoemakers, but courses 
of about four weeks' duration, eight hours per day, are given to 
master- workmen and to the older journeymen in such centres 



66 Teachers College Record [416 

as Ulm and Stuttgart, and especially at Tuttlingen. There is no 
tuition fee. The pupils furnish the materials. There is no 
machine work, although instruction for the prevention of acci- 
dents is a part of the course. 

There are a few private industrial schools in Wuerttemberg 
in connection with large corporate industries, and wholly main- 
tained by the proprietors, on the plan of the schools of R. H. 
Hoe & Company or of the National Cash Register Company 
of this country. Such, for example, is that of the Daimler 
Automobile Company at Untertuerkheim. The plant here 
employs 3000 men, and is reputed to be the greatest of its kind 
in Germany. At Esslingen the Maschinenfabrik also has its 
own school. Likewise the Metalfabrik of Geislingen and the 
Bruderhaus Furniture Factory at Reutlingen. No extended 
theoretical courses are given by the private industrial institutions. 

Not content with the work of the vocational schools alone, 
the Central Bureau has for many years devoted much attention 
to the giving of special industrial courses in the chief centres 
of technical activity. Historically, the plan is very old in 
Wuerttemberg. Over fifty years ago, travelling instructors 
were sent out to give courses in handloom weaving, of two 
months' duration, in the localities where this industry had at- 
tained some importance. About ten years later chemical 
courses were established here and there for metalworkers and 
soapmakers. During the last ten years a great many "the- 
oretical-technical" and "practical-technical" courses on the 
plan of Baden's have been conducted throughout Wuerttem- 
berg by the agency of the Central Bureau. Also, industrial 
art courses and instruction for the building trades, for master- 
workmen, are under its auspices. Among others, "practical- 
technical" courses are given in the following branches; hand- 
gilding, horse-collar making, interior decoration, shoemaking, 
cutting, graining, marbled binding, electrical and interior 
installation, cabinet-making, bookbinding, tailoring, watch- 
making. The courses are from three to twenty -one days in 
duration (eight hours per day), and are open only to those already 
possessing considerable skill in the special branch. The in- 
structors are exceptional master handicraftsmen or professional 
teachers. The "practical-technical" courses cost the state 
in the neighborhood of $1300 yearly, with the addition of 



417] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 67 

about $700 for stipends to those attending. The duration of 
the courses is not as long as it is desirable to have them from 
the point of view of the instruction, but considering the needs 
of both workmen and employers the golden mean has been 
chosen. In Austria, the work of this kind is carried on for 
from six to eight weeks, and in such cities of Germany as Han- 
over and Cologne the Austrian model has been imitated. In 
Wuerttemberg, up to the present, it has seemed impracticable 
to lengthen the courses. 

The "theoretical-technical" courses are given on holiday 
afternoons, and not, like the "practical-technical " work, through- 
out successive day periods. In one branch of the work, the 
different industries have been taken up in successive years, and 
the instruction is given to the elite of each type: soapmakers, 
metalworkers, house painters, photographers, coopers, and dis- 
tillers, brewers, bakers, builders, decorative painters. Special 
chemical courses are also established. Industrial art for decora- 
tive painters is taught. Courses for janitors and building su- 
perintendents are given. 

Under the Central Bureau there are also courses for teach- 
ers, master- workmen, and merchants, in industrial bookkeeping. 
These are continuous throughout ten or twelve days. 

A considerable number of industrial courses are conducted 
under the auspices of unions. The Central Bureau aids by paying 
about one-third of the deficit after tuition and donations have 
been applied toward the expenditures. About a dozen courses 
are established annually by the Central Bureau in the manner 
of conducting handicrafts associations, with especial attention 
to the importance of such unions for the industries, instruction 
in bookkeeping, etc. 

Annual stipends paid out by the Central Bureau for attend- 
ance at industrial schools in various localities amount to about 
$1000. 

There are in Wuerttemberg eight boards of trade (Handels- 
kammern) and four great handicrafts boards of industry (Hand- 
werkskammern) , at Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm, and Reutlingen, 
the boards of industry representing over one hundred unions 
of small industrialists scattered throughout the kingdom. The 
boards of industry, organized by the state, have" fixed upon 



68 Teachers College Record [418 

three years as the usual term of apprenticeship. Since 1899, 
in imitation of Baden and Switzerland, the state has supported 
a number of apprenticeship workshops, in connection with 
various industries, and largely equipped with up-to-date tools 
and machinery through the Central Bureau. There were 185 
such workshops in 1905, with 201 apprentices, representing 27 
industries as diversified as could well be imagined. The state 
expends $3000 per year for the upkeep of the workshops, and 
besides furnishes an inspector, the "travelling instructor." 
The master-workman having a state-aided apprenticeship 
workshop must give board and lodging in his own household to 
the apprentice, and must not require many errands outside 
of the regular work in the industry. He must instruct the 
apprentice and demand good conduct and regular attendance 
at church. Each increase in the number of apprentices must 
have the approval of the Central Bureau. Samples of work 
must be furnished to the Central Bureau each year for the ex- 
hibit at Stuttgart. Prizes are given. Over 800 apprentices 
take part annually in the exhibit — all, except those having the 
privileges of the state-installed workshops, of their own volition. 
In order to be eligible the apprentice must have worked at the 
industry for at least nine months. Between 50 and 60 industries 
are represented each year, and the exhibits are carefully in- 
spected by about 10,000 interested persons. The industries 
having the greatest number of exhibits are usually those of the 
cabinet-makers, locksmiths, mechanics, painters, smiths, barbers, 
braziers, wagon-makers, tailors, turners, bookbinders, wood- 
carvers, coopers, saddlers, and shoemakers. 

At the end of his apprenticeship the young workman is 
obliged to take the examinations in industrial (or commercial) 
subjects and to produce a specimen of his handiwork. The 
yearly cost of the latter test amounts to about $8000. Of this 
sum the state contributes something over $2000 each year. 
The remaining cost is borne by the boards of industry. The 
latter receive an appropriation from the state (for adminis- 
trative purposes mainly) of $5000 annually. 

In choosing a trade, the tendency in Wuerttemberg, as in all 
Old World countries, is to follow in the footsteps of the parent. 
However, advice is usually sought from the head of the local 
improvement school, who is kept informed as to the needs of 



419] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 69 

the country by the Central Bureau, or from the head of a special 
school, the "travelling instructor" or inspectors. No country 
has a better system for keeping tab on the new demands that 
arise in industry and commerce and communicating its findings 
to the localities. 

For the further dissemination of industrial instruction and 
of news in this domain the Central Bureau issues a weekly 
periodical, Das Gewerbeblatt, which reaches 12,000 subscribers 
and is on file in every workmen's club or industrial headquarters 
in the land. It is a most useful publication, in close touch with 
the needs of the country through the state inspectors and the 
representatives of unions and boards of industry who are its 
contributors. The yearly cost of the journal is only $.24 in 
clubs of three or more. The state pays the annual deficit of 
about $5000 for its publication. 

One of the most important agencies of industrial instruction 
under the Central Bureau is the " travelling industrial instructor" 
(Wanderlehrer) . This official gives about seventy lectures in the 
various centres annually. He inspects the apprentice workshops, 
takes notes of the use to which they are put, and determines 
what additions of machinery, tools, or exhibit material are 
necessary. He is the advisory agent and industrial barometer of 
the Central Bureau. He helps to arrange the state exhibits 
of apprenticeship work, supervises the courses for master-work- 
men, and in some cases himself gives instruction. On invitation 
he meets with the unions, and at all times urges them to give 
special industrial courses for master-workmen and for industrial 
teachers, and furnishes information as to the available special 
instructors. He investigates household industries, writes weekly 
for the state industrial journal, and is altogether as busy as a 
man could well be. For his expert services in this country the 
state pays only $1800 annually. 

Besides the magnificent State Industrial Museum at Stuttgart, 
under the direct management of the Central Bureau, there are 
four other industrial museums in Wuerttemberg receiving some 
aid from the state. These are the Special Industrial Museum 
for the Fine Metal Industry, at Gmuend, and the industrial 
museums of Ulm, Spaichingen, and Heilbronn. The remarkable 
thing about any and all of the Wuerttemberg industrial museums 
is the fact that they make a strong point of the best in up-to 



70 Teachers College Record [420 

date industrial methods, use of material, and workmanship; 
and, while they are repositories of much that is classic, they 
appear to have purposely neglected those exhibits which have 
chiefly an antiquarian rather than a practical interest. 

Other aid in the direction of industrial betterment afforded 
by the Central Bureau includes the following: (1) Books are 
loaned from the library of the State Industrial Museum to local 
libraries and to unions, or are purchased outright for them by 
the same agency; (2) free technical advice is furnished (especially 
to builders) ; (3) the instructive yearly reports of the Wuerttem- 
berg boards of industry are published and given a wide circu- 
lation; (4) tests of boilers and engines are made gratis by the 
engineering laboratory of the technical college, through the 
aid of an appropriation granted by the Central Bureau; (5) new 
and valuable models and patterns are made known to the various 
industries through illustration and description in the industrial 
journal of the state, or by advertisement; (6) local industrial 
expositions are arranged for, and the state takes part in foreign 
expositions of the kind 5(7) large stipends are afforded for the visit- 
ing of foreign industrial expositions ; (8) grants are made for the 
stimulation of industries, or for their introduction (recently these 
have been fewer and smaller) ; (9) travelling stipends are allotted, 
especially for the visiting of the industrial exhibits at Stuttgart, 
Karlsruhe, Munich, and other places easily reached, and also 
for trips to Paris, London, and America; (10) medals are given 
for long and efficient service in industries (in 1904 bestowed 
upon no industrial workers); (n) finally, there is an extensive 
industrial inspection system costing $18,000 per annum, and 
(12) the work of collecting and publishing industrial statistics. 

In this abbreviated report, the crowning glory of the Central 
Bureau, mentioned frequently in the above paragraphs, may 
only be given a word. I refer to the State Industrial Museum 
at Stuttgart. Having had occasion to visit the principal mu- 
seums of all kinds at home and abroad, I know of none that is 
more efficient, nor which houses more diversified and helpful 
activities held together by one consistent and unique purpose 
— the universal instruction and industrial betterment of the 
people. The entire range of industrial propaganda discussed 
above has its effective headquarters in this building, and it 



42 1 ] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 71 

manifold functions are co-ordinated and made mutually helpful 
through the Central Bureau. Though established in a mag- 
nificent new building, and now as always making much of the 
display of latest productions in the realm of industry and in- 
dustrial art, this museum is in reality the oldest of its kind in 
Germany (1849), an( i its pedagogical exhibit is the oldest per- 
manent display of the sort in existence anywhere. An in- 
spection of the museum soon convinces that the central thought 
governing its organization and management is the application 
of the best ideas of both past and present to present needs. It 
is a rare illustration of what a live and vital institution a museum 
can be. The collections are chiefly concerned with raw and 
partly manufactured materials; the chemical indu stries; in 
dustrial and industrial- art objects from the precious and baser 
metals; pottery, glass and crystal ware; furniture, and interior 
decoration; clocks and musical instruments (if anything more 
artistic and poetical than the special music room has been caught 
in wood or metal, I have not seen it) ; wood and ivory carving ; 
work in leather; bookbinding and artistic books; the graphic 
arts; weaving and knitting, laces, embroidery; carpets and 
tapestries; power and hand machinery; devices for protection 
against accidents; instruments of precision; weapons; electro- 
technical machinery and apparatus; models in the greatest 
variety . 

Especially important is the collection of textile materials, 
French and English weaving patterns, etc. — 300,000 samples, 
catalogued and indexed. There are about 10,000 Chinese 
and Japanese industrial art objects, selected with rare 
discernment. An interesting collection is that of the Black 
Forest wall clocks ("grandfather's clocks") of various periods. 
There is, besides, one of the best collections of watches in the 
world, and an equally valuable collection of building materials. 
For the business man or the student of industry there are 100 
directories from all over the world, about 500 catalogs of ex- 
positions, and 10,000 price lists arranged according to industry 
and country. A vast number of art models in plaster serve 
for the industrial art schools throughout the country. They 
are manufactured in the building. There is no charge for ad- 
mission to the museum, free guides are furnished, and Wuerttem- 
berg industrialists may have the services of experts without 



72 Teachers College Record [422 

cost. The library is a well chosen collection of technical ma- 
terial, consisting of 75,000 bound volumes and 55,000 pamphlets. 
The library department is classed in five divisions: science, art, 
collection of photographic art material, educational museum 
with especial reference to the industrial and commercial im- 
provement schools, and the reading-room for industrial news- 
papers and magazines (300). The chemical laboratory, with 
its three or four experts constantly employed in making tests 
of raw materials, etc., for the various Wuerttemberg industries, 
is worthy of more than passing notice. The popular chemical 
courses given in the lecture room of the museum prove invalu- 
able to the pupils of the City Industrial Improvement School, 
and to the other individuals who are admitted. It is the appli- 
cation to industry that is always emphasized here. 

Principal References: Die Gewerbebefoerderung im Koenigreich Wuert- 
temberg, Stuttgart, 1905; Die allgemeinen Grundlagen der Kultur der 
Gegenwart, Lexis and others, Berlin, 1906; Die Entstehung und Ent- 
wicklung der Gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen 
in Wuerttemberg, Stuttgart, 1889; Consular Reports of England and 
America, esp. since 1900; Consular Year Book; Regierungsblatt fuer das 
Koenigreich Wuerttemberg, esp. since 1900; Statistisches Jahrbuch fuer das 
deutsche Reich, i9o6-'7; Wuerttemberg Statistik, and Schulstatistik; Pub- 
lications of the K. Wuertt. Statistischen Landesamts; Jahresberichte of the 
various city systems of schools, and of each special type of school; Ent- 
wurf eines Gesetzes betreffend die Gewerbe und Handelsschulen, Beilage 195, 
January 20, 1905, Wuertt. Chamber of Deputies; Bericht der Volksschul- 
kommission (concerning the preceding) May 26, 1906; V erhandlungen der 
Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, esp. Sitzungen Nos. 141, 142, 169, 170, 
iyi, and 172 — February to June — 1906; Lexis, Das Unterrichtswesen im 
Deutschen Reich, Berlin, 1904; Uebersicht ueber die Verwaltung und den 
Stand der Gemeindeangelegenheiten, Stuttgart, from 1901; Official Publica- 
tions of educational Ministries in Europe for the year 1906 ; Encyclopaedias 
of Rein, Schmidt and Buisson; Publications of the Wuerttemberg Histori- 
cal Society; Programs, etc., of various schools in Wuerttemberg, and in 
other states; Private administrative records of certain schools and organi- 
zations; Personal notes. 



REFERENCES* 

Page 7 : 

17 — Wuerttembergische Jahrbuecker. 25 — Wuertt. Statistik. 
28 — Losch: Zur Wuerttembergischen Eisenbahn- und Steuerpol- 
itik, p. 397 ff. 29 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 8: 
2 — Ibid., p. 401 ff. 4 — Zfo<i., p. 404. 12 — Ww#r#. Statistik, 
p. 35. 14 — Ibid., loc. cit. 32 — Cf. Ibid., passim. 

Page 9: 

3 — Quarterly Returns, in MS., furnished by American Vice- 
Consul at Stuttgart. 5 — Cf. Statesman's Yearbook. 8 — Statist- 
isches Jahrbuch fuer das Deutsche Reich, p. 40 ff. 24 — Ibid., 
p. 105 ff; Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign 
Countries during the year 1905, Document No. 70, Department 
of Commerce and Labor, p. 178 ff. 

Page 10: 
7 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, iqo6. 9 — Cf. Die Entstehung und En- 
twicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frauenarbeits- 
schulen in Wuerttemberg, passim. 14 — Ibid., passim. 16 — 
Gesetz vom 22 Juli, iqo6, Art. 11. 

Page 1 1 : 
3 — Cf. Wuertt. Statistik. 5 — Statistik des Unterrichts und 
Erziehungswesens im Koenigreich Wuerttemberg, p. 26 ff. 25 — 
Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, Beilage iq$, p. 446. 35 — Ver- 
handlungen der Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, 16 g Sitzung y 
p. 3962, et passim. 40 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, iqo6, Art. 1, ei 
passim. 

Page 1 2 : 

7 — Cf. Kerschensteiner : Das Fach- und Fortbildungsschulwesen y 
in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, Teil 1, Abteilung 1, p. 252 ff. 11 — 

* The figures at the left of the References indicate the lines of the pages referred to in the 
monograph. 

73 



74 References 

Gesetz vom 22 Juli, 1906, Art. 10. 14 — V erhandlungen der 
Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, 141-142 Sitz., passim. 24 — 
Percentage computed from Statistik; Cf. also Roscher: Hand- 
woerterbuch der Staatswis sens chaf ten, No. 1, III, p. 1096. 29 — 
Baumeister: Handbuch der Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre fuer 
hoehere Schulen, 1, p. 137 ff; Lexis: Das Unterrichtswesen im 
Deutschen Reich, Vol. II, p. 100 ff. 30 — Cf. Schiller : Lehrbuch der 
Gesckichte der Paedagogik, p. 102 ff; Mertz: Das Sckulwesen der 
deutschen Reformation im 16. Jahrhundert, p. 520, 228, et passim. 
31 — Baumeister, op. cit., loc. cit. 34 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 13: 

1 — Founded 1477. 2 — Lexis, IV, p. 96. 3 — Die Gewerbe- 
befoerderung im Koenigreich Wuerttemberg, p. 6. 5 — Huebner: 
Die Deutschen Schulmuseen, p. 9. 7— Vormbaum: Die Evangel- 
ischen Schulordnungen des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts, Vol. I, p. 
68 ff. 9 — Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fort- 
bildungs schulen und Frauenarbeits schulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 56. 
21 — Second Annual Report of Education Department, State of 
New York, p. 527 ff. 

Page 14: 

13 — Cf. Gesetz vom 22 Maerz, 1895, Reg. Blatt 8. 14 — Ibid. 
16 — Ibid., Art. 3. 20 — Ibid., Art. 2, 5. 25 — Ibid., loc. cit. 29 — 
Ibid., Art. 5. 32 — Ibid., Art. 7. 32 — Statistik, p. 47. 

Page 15: 
23 — Compiled from Semester lists, Wuertt. Statistik, Statistik, 
and Die Gewerbebefoerderung im Koenigreich Wuerttemberg. 

Page 19: 
32 — Personal — Verzeichnis der K. Tech. Hochschule zu Stuttgart 
fuer das Sommer semester igo6. Ibid., Winter semester, 1905- 
1906. 

Page 20: 
13 — Cf. Programme. 15 — Ibid. 17 — Cf. Die Gewerbebefoer- 
derung im K. Wuerttemberg, passim. 23 — Ibid., p. 98. 25 — 
Ibid., p. 26. 25 — Ibid., p. 121. 27 — Ibid., p. 108 ff. 30 — Ibid., 
p. 131. 31 — Ibid., pp. 88, 121. 

Page 2 2 : 
11 — Cf. Draper: Educational Organization and Administra- 
tion, ap. Butler: Education in the United States. 13 — Op. cit. 



References 7 5 

16 — See Annual Catalogues. 17 — See section describing courses 
for apprentices, etc., in Annual Catalogue of Kansas State Agri- 
cultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. Also: Ibid., Art. "History 
and Resources." 21 — i. e., Massachusetts and Wisconsin. 30 — 
Cf . Bericht der K. Centralstelle an das K. Ministerium des Innern. 
im Gewerbeblatt, S. 145, Stuttgart, 1850. 34 — Bauer: Art. Gewer- 
bliche Fortbildungsschulen, in Rein's Encyklopaedisches Handbuch 
der Paedagogik. 35 — Ibid., Cf. also, he Livre des Metiers 
d'Etienne Boileau, passim. 37 — Ibid. 

Page 23: 

2 — Ibid. 5 — Cf. Le Livre des Metiers, passim. 7 — Cf. Bris- 
son: Histoire du Travail et des Travailleurs, passim. 9 — Kerschen- 
steiner: Das Fach- und Fortbiidungsschulwesen, p. 245. 
13 — Ibid., p. 244. 17 — Ibid., p. 245. 19 — Cf. Ibid. Also: 
Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor 
passim. 20 — Ibid. 29 — Vormbaum: Die Evangelischen Schul- 
ordnungen des sechszehnten ] ahrhunderts , Vol. I, p. 68 ff. 30 — 
Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungs- 
schulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 3. 32 — 
Ibid., loc. cit. 36 — Ibid., loc. cit. 40 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 24: 

5 — Ibid., loc. cit. 12 — Schneider und v. Bremen: Volksschul- 
wesen im Preussischen Staate, Vol. Ill, p. 674. 17 — von Klim- 
burg: Die Entwicklung des gewerblichen Unterrichtswesens in 
Oesterreich, p. 9 ff. 24 — Kerschensteiner : Das Fach- und Fortbii- 
dungsschulwesen, p. 245. 31 — Ibid., loc. cit. 33 — Dr. Stuhlman: 
Das Fortbildungswesen der Freien und Hansastadt Hamburg, p. 
199, Vol. V., ap. Pache: Handbuch des d. Fortbildungsschul- 
wesens. 35 — Ibid. sj-^Ibid. Cf. also: Jahresberichte. 40 — 
R. Bauer, ap. 'Rein: Encyklopaedisches Handbuch, Vol. Ill, p. 578. 

Page 25: 
5 — Ibid. 8 — Ibid. 9 — von Klimburg: Die Entwicklung des 
gewerblichen Unterrichtswesens in Oesterreich, p. 15. 13 — Ibid., 
loc. cit. 22 — Kerschensteiner, op. cit., p. 246. 26— Wieszner: 
Geschichte des Unterrichts in den technischen Lehrfaechern, p. 368. 
29 — Bauer: Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschule, p. 579. 30 — Elisa- 
beth Altmann: Art. Handarbeit der Maedchen, ap. Rein, Vol. III., 
p. 834. 31 — Ibid., loc. cit. 35 — Ibid., loc. cit. 33 — Comte de 



7 6 References 

Fontaine de Resbecq: Histoire de V Enseignement Primaire avant 
1789 dans les communes qui ont forme le Departement du Nord, pp. 
74, 238, et passim. 

Page 26: 

2 — Cf. Altmann, ap. Rein, Vol. Ill, p. 835. 6 — Ibid., p. 834. 
9 — Ibid., loc. cit. 29 — Cf. Lexis, Vol. IV. 32 — Die Entstehung 
und Entwicklung des gewerblicken Unterrichtswesens in Wuerttem- 
berg, p. 1. 34— Ibid., loc. cit. 36 — Ibid., loc. cit., et seqq. 

Page 2 7 : 

3 — Ibid. 7 — Ibid., note. 9 — /&«£., p. 5. 11 — Zfod., /oc. cit. 
16 — /6irf., /oc. cit., et seqq. 18 — Ibid., p. 6. 21 — Ibid., loc. cit. 
25 — Ibid., loc. cit., et seq. 32 — Cf. Russell: German Higher 
Schools. Also: Matthias: Hoeheres Knabenschulwesen, and 
Gaudig: Hoeheres Maedchenschulwesen, in Die Allgemeinen 
Grundlagen der Kultur der Gegenwart. 40 — Cf. Carl Kroekel: 
Das Preussisch-Deutsche Zolltarif system in seiner historischen 
Entwicklung seit 1818. 

Page 28: 
4 — Kerschensteiner : op. cit., p. 251. 7 — Kroekel: op. cit., p. 
2 ff. 17 — Gesetze vom 26 Mai, 1818. Cf. Kroekel: op. cit., p. 1 ff. 
20 — Ibid., passim. 22 — Decree of March 17, 1791. Cf. von 
Rohrscheidt: Vom Zunftzwange zur Gewerbefreiheit, p. 376. 23 
— Kerschensteiner: op. cit., p. 246. 24 — Edict of Nov. 2, 1810. 
Cf. von Rohrscheidt: op. cit., p. 375. 25 — Kerschensteiner: op. 
cit., p. 247. 31 — C. Mohl: Aus den gewerbswissenschaftlichen 
Ergebnissen einer Reise in Frankreich. Also: Steinbeis: Die 
Elemente der Gewerbebefoerderung nachgewiesen an der Belgischen 
Industrie. 

Page 29: 

3 — Cf. Beaurepaire: Recherches sur V instruction public, dans 
le diocese de Rouen, avant 178Q, Vol. II, pp. 289-290; Resbecq: 
op. cit., pp. 73-77. Also, Buisson: Dictionnaire de Pedagogic 
under heading for each Departement. 6 — Kerschensteiner: op. 
cit., p. 249. 12 — Ibid. 20 — Lessing: Kunst und Kunstgewer- 
beausstellungen, p. 344 ff. — in Die Allgemeinen Grundlagen der 
Kultur der Gegenwart. 2 1 — Ibid. 25 — Cf . Reports of the Science 
and Art Department, London, Eyre and Spottiswoode. 27 — Cf. 



References 'j'j 

Twenty-first Report of the Science and Art Department, 1874, 
pp. 12, 13. 28 — Ibid., p. 13. 32 — Ibid., p. 8. 

Page 30: 
2 — Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Foribil- 
dungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 6 ff. 
3 — See Mohl: op. cit. Also Steinbeis: op. cit. 8 — Die Entste- 
hung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungssckulen und 
Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 8 ff. 9 — Ibid., p. 9 ff. 
14 — Ibid., p. 14. 16 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, iqo6, Art. 5. 20 — Die 
Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen 
und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 14. 21 — Ibid., 
loc. cit. 25 — Ibid., loc. cit. 35 — Ibid., loc. cit. 38 — Cf. Kroekel: 
op. cit. 

Page 31: 

4 — Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbil- 
dungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 16. 
9 — Ibid., loc. cit. 12 — Ibid., loc. cit. 14 — Ibid., loc. cit. 17 — 
Ibid., p. 17 ff. 19 — Ibid., p. 9 ff. 21 — Ibid., loc. cit. 23 — Ibid., 
p. 1 7 . 25 — Beilage 195, p. 446, Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten. 
30 — Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbil- 
dungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, passim. 
32 — Ibid., p. 18. 36 — Ibid., loc. cit. 39 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 32: 

2 — Ibid., loc. cit. 6 — Ibid., loc. cit. 8 — Cf. Pache: Handbuch 
des Deutschen Fortbildungsschulwesens. Also, Roscher: p. 1096 
of Vol. Ill, Handwoerterbuch der Staatswis sens chaf ten. Also, 
statistical reports of European states. 12 — Denkschrift ueber 
das technische Unterrichtswesen in Bay em, Beilage 764, p. 20. 15 
— Gesetz vom 26 April, 1874. ^ — Baden: Gesetz vom 18 Feb- 
ruar, 1874, P ar - 1 J Saxe-Gotha : Gesetz vom 27 Oktober, 1874. 19 — 
Cf. Pache: Handbuch. 22 — Saxony: Cf. H. Stoerl: Das Fortbil- 
dungsschulwesen des K. Sachsen, p. 2 6 ff. Baden : Joos : Gesetze und 
Verordnungen ueber Elementar-Unterricht im Groszherzogtum 
Baden, p. 727. Wuerttemberg: esp. Gesetz vom 22 Maerz, 1895. 
Hesse: Cf. Greim und Mueller: Das Volksschulwesen im Grosz- 
herzogtum Hessen, p. 69 ff. 27 — Gesetz vom 4 Mai, 1886. Cf. p. 
164, Vol. Ill, Schneider und von Bremen: Volksschulwesen im 
Preussischen Staate. 30 — Kerschensteiner, p. 253. 37, — Ibid., 



7 8 References 

loc. cit. 40 — Cf. Pache: Art. Fortbildungsschulen, ap. Rein: 
Encyk. Haftdbuch. Also, Pache: Hmidbnecher. 

Page 33: 
4 — Die Entstehung und Eniwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbil- 
dungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 17 ff. 
5 — Ibid., passim. 16 — Lexis : Das Unterrichtswesen im Deutschen 
Reich, Vol. IV, p. 246. 18 — Ibid., p. 247. 20 — Ibid., loc. cit. 22 
— Ibid., p. 248. 26 — Die Gewerbebefoerderdung im Koenigreich 
Wuerttemberg, p. 79 ff. Prospekt, p. 1 ff. 28 — Die Entstehung 
und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frau- 
enarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, pp. 56-57. 31 — Die Gewerbe- 
befoerderung, etc., p. 40 ff. 40 — Wuertt. Statistik, p. 183. 

Page 34: 

2 — Ibid., loc. cit. 4 — Ibid., loc. cit. 12 — Beilage 19 5, p. 448. 
14 — Ibid., loc. cit. ; Bericht der Volksschulkommission, Beilage 257, 
p. 95. 17 — Cf. Beilage 195, Bericht der Volksschidkommission, 
und Verhandlungen der Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, 141, 
142, 169, iyi and IJ2 Sitzungen. 26 — Beilage 193, p. 448, et 
passim. 28 — Ibid. Also, Verhandlungen, etc. 31- — Ibid. 33 — 
Beilage 195, p. 453. 

Page 35: 

4 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, 1906, Art. 19. Vergl. Regierungsblatt 

/. d. K. W '., 26, 1906. 7 — Ibid., loc. cit. 17 — Ibid., Art. 1. 20 — 

Ibid., Art. 1. 22 — Ibid., Art. 1. 26 — Ibid., Art. 1. 30 — Ibid., 

Art. 2. 32 — Ibid., Art. 2. 35 — Ibid., Art. 2. 39 — Ibid., Art. 2. 

Page 36: 
3 — Zfrtd., Art. 3. 4 — 76z'd., Art. 3. 8-12 — 76«i., Art. 4. 15 — 
7W&, Art. 5. 17 — Cf. Beilage 195, p. 447. 23 — Gesetz vom 22 
Juli, 1906, Art. 5. 26 — Ibid., Art. 5. 29 — Ibid., Art. 6. 32 — 
Ibid., Art. 8. 33— Ibid., Art. 8. 3$— Ibid., Art. 9. 3^— Ibid., 
Art. 10. 

Page 37: 
2 — Zfod., Art. 10. 8 — Ibid., Art. 11. 11 — Ibid., Art. 12. 14 
— Ibid., Art. 15. 16-21 — Ibid., Art. 15. 24 — Ibid., Art. 16. 
25-30 — Ibid., Art. 17. 34 — Ibid., Art. 13. 35-37 — Ibid., Art. 
13. 39 — Ibid., Art. 14. 



References 79 

Page 38: 

1-6 — Ibid., Art. 13. 7-17 — Ibid., Art. 14. 22 — Entwurf 
eines Ge seizes, p. 448. 25 — Beilage iq$, Wuertt. Kammer der 
Abgeordneten, p. 447. 26-28 — Ibid., loc. cit. 31 — Ibid., passim. 
33 — Ibid., p. 452, et passim. 

Page 39: 

2 — Entwurf eines Gesetzes, p. 447. 7 — Verhandlungen, i6q 
Sitzung, p. 3962, ^ passim; Bericht der Volksschulkommission, 
p. 96. 17 — Statistik, igo6, p. 26. 22 — Personal notes. 25 — 
Statistik, igo6, p. 26. 27 — Zfo'd., Zog\ cit. 28 — Pers. notes. 
30 — Computed from Statistik, p. 26. 32 — 76^i., loc. cit. 35 — 
Beilage 195, p. 447. 

Page 40: 
1-14 — Ibid., loc. cit. 17-23 — Ibid., p. 449. 28 — Gesetz vom 
22 Juli, iqo6, Art. 5. 30 — Ibid., Art. 1. 34 — Verhandlungen 
der W. Kamm. der Abgeord., 141 Sitzung, pp. 3357-3358, et 
passim; Bericht der Volksschulkommission, p. 96. 

Page 41: 
1 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, 1906, Art. 3 ; also: Verhandlungen, Sitz. 
169, p. 3971, et passim. 3 — Ibid., loc. cit. 11 — Die Entstehung 
und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frau- 
enarbeitsschiden in Wuerttemberg, passim. 18 — Cf. Verhand- 
lungen. 21 — Entwurf eines Gesetzes, p. 448. 24 — Beilage 195. 
28 — Ibid. Cf. Beilage 257, p. 109. Also, Lexis: Unt. im d. Reich. 
30 — Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, Beilage 25J, vom 26 Mai, 
iqo6, p. 109. 31 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 42 : 
1 — Statistik, p. 26. 7 — Cf. Verhandlungen, passim. 15 — 
Beilage 195, p. 453. 

Page 43 : 
1 — Lexis: Das Unt. im d. Reich, Vol. IV, p. 180. 3 — Ibid., 
loc. cit. 4 — Statement of the President of the Centralstelle fuer 
Gewerbe und Handel. 28 — Verh. der Wuertt. Kamm. der Ab- 
geordneten, Sitzung 141, p. 3359, et. passim. 35 — Ibid., Sitz., 
142, p. 3375. 36 — Ibid., loc. cit. 39 — Lexis: Vol. IV, p. 180. 



80 References 

Page 44: 
1-8 — Ibid., loc. cit. 10 — Ibid., p. 182. 36— Die Entstehung 
Und Entwicklung der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frau- 
enarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, p. 77. $8 — Ibid., p. 38. 

Page 45 : 
13— Ibid., passim. 25 — Verhandlungen, Sitz, iji, p. 4017, 
et passim. 26-30 — Ibid. 31 — Ibid., p. 4019. 39 — Statement 
of the President of the Board. 

Page 46: 
15 — Verh. 169 Sitz., p. 3980, et passim. 15 — Ibid., p. 3981, 
et passim. 19 — 170 Sitz., p. 4002. 20-25 — Ibid., loc. cit. 28 — 
Cf. Etat. 30 — Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der gewerblichen 
Fortbildungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen in Wuerttemberg, 
p. 21 ft. 

Page 47 : 
2 — Ibid. p. 16, note. 5 — Ibid., p. 15, note. 12 — Bericht ueber die 
Verwaltung und den Stand der Gemeindeangelegenheiten in den 
Jahren 1889 bis 1901, p. 150. 28 — Cf. Wuertt. Arbeiter statistic . 

Page 48: 

21 — Bericht der staedtischen Gewerbeschule in Stuttgart ueber 
das Schuljahr 1905-1906, p. 32. 23 — Ibid., passim. 

Page 49: 

1 — Ibid., p. 5 ft; Die Entstehung und Entw., passim. 2 — Bericht 
der st. Gewerbeschule, p. 6. 4 — Ibid., p. 7. 5 — Programm fuer 
1906-1907, p. 1. 12 — Ibid., loc. cit. 14 — Ibid., loc. cit. 16 — 
Cf. Hughes: The Making of Citizens, p. 168. 16 — Programm 
fuer 1 906-1 907, p. 1. 17 — Ibid., loc. cit. 19 — Bericht, p. 33. 
20-29 — Ibid., loc. cit. 2>?> — Ibid., p. 32. 34 — Ibid., loc. cit. 35 — 
From the Bericht. 

Page 50: 

7 — Bericht, p. 5 ft. 10-12 — Ibid., loc. cit. 17-19 — Bericht, p. 
5. 22 — Ibid., p. 9. 24 — Ibid., p. 6. 25— Ibid., p. 9. 

Page 51: 
2 — Ibid., loc. cit. 7 — Ibid., p. 6. 12 — See statement of the 
purpose of the evening elementary courses (Programm, p. 1), 
and requirements of law of July 22, 1906, Regierungsblatt 26, 



References 81 

Aug. 31, 1906, Art. 11. 14 — Bericht, p. 6. 17-24 — Ibid., loc. cit. 
25 — Ibid., p. 7. 29 — Ibid., p. 10 /. 30 — Ibid., p. 10. ^$ — 
Ibid., p. 12 ff. 34 — Ibid. p. 14. 37 — Ibid., pp. 6-7. 39 — Ibid., 
p. 7. 40 — Programm, p. 1 ; Bericht, p. 7. 

Page 52: 
1-3 — Zfo'd., /<?c. cit 3 — Ibid., p. 14 ff. 20 — 2Mi., p. 7. 24-27 
— 76^., loc. cit. 29 — Zfo'd., p. 23. 31 — Ibid., pp. 24-25. 33 — 
/fo'd., pp. 7-8. 40 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 53: 
2-3 — Ibid., loc. cit. 5 — Ibid., p. 25. 7 — Ibid., p. 25 ^. 11 — 
Ibid., p. 4. 17 — Bericht, p. 8. 18 — Ibid., p. 8. 19 20 — /bid., 
p. 8. 37 — Bericht, p. 28 ff. 

Page 54: 
9 — Statistik, p. 26. 10 — Die Entstehung und Entw., p. 77. 10 
— Wuertt. Statistik, p. 183. 15 — Die Entstehung und Entw., etc., 
p. 77; Statistik, p. 26. 18 — Uebersicht ueber die saemtlichen Un- 
terrichts und Erziehungsanstalten, Stuttgart, 1901, p. 254. 29 — 
Etat der gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen fuer IQ06, p. 481. 
Beilage Nr. XV, zum Schulpflegee'tat Nr. 34. 

Page 55: 

1 — Ibid., loc. cit. 3 — Ibid., p. 482. 6 — Ibid., loc. cit. 10 — 

Gesetz vom 22 Maerz, 18Q5, Art. 12. 13 — Hof- und Staatshand- 

buch, 1906, p. 164. 15 — Ibid., loc. cit. 17 — Uebersicht ueber 

die saemtlichen Unterrichts tmd Erziehungsanstalten, p. 254. 18 — 

Vergl. Ortsstatut vom 9 Februar, 1905. 22 — Ibid., Statistik, 1906, 

p. 26. 24 — Gesetz vom 22 Juli, 1906; Cf. Regierungsblatt 26, Aug. 

31, 1906, Art. 1 ff. 26 — Cf. Programm. 27 — Ibid. 29 — Gesetz 

vom 22 Juli, 1906. 34 — Vergl. Ortsstatut, 9 Februar, 1905, par. 9. 

35 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 56: 

1 — Cf. Programm fuer 1906-1907. 4-7 — Ibid. 8 — Ortsstatut, 
Feb. 9, 1905, par. 11. 10 — Ibid., loc. cit. 12-25 — Cf. Programm. 
29-33 — Etats der Stadtverwaltung, 1906, p, 415 ff. 

Page 57: 
1 — Uebersicht ueber die saemtlichen Unterrichts und Erziehungs- 
anstalten, p. 260. 3 — Ibid., loc. cit. 5 — Ibid., p. 261. 5 — Ibid., 
p. 260. 6 — Lexis: Vol. IV, p. 158. 



82 References 

Page 58: 

7 — Uebersicht ueber die saemtlichen Unterrichts und Erziehungs- 
anstalten, p. 242. 10 — Ibid., p. 243. 13 — Ibid., loc. cit. 24 — 
Hof- und Staatshandbuch; Lexis, Vol. IV, p. 164. 27 — Hof- und 
Staatskandbuch, Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., passim. 
29 — Hof- und Staatshandbuch; Gesetz vom 22 Juli, iqo6. 33 — 
Hof- und Staatshandbuch. 38 — Ibid., Die Gewerbebef. im K. W., 
passim. 40 — Cf. Hof- und Staatshandbuch, p. 131 ff. 

Page 59: 
3 — Lexis: Das Unterrichtswesen im Deuischen Reich, Vol. IV, 
p. 163. 7 — Statistik, p. 26. 9 — Die Entst. und Entw., etc., 
p. 56. 10-19 — Ibid., p. 57. 21-25 — Ibid., p. 58. 26-30 — Ibid., 
P- 59- 33 — Ibid., p. 61. 36 — Ibid., Lexis: Vol. IV, p. 164. 
37-39 — Ibid., loc. cit. 

Page 60: 

8 — Uebersicht ueber die saemtlichen Unterrichts und Erziehungs- 
anstalten, p. 259. 

Page 61: 
8-10 — Etats der Stadtverwaltung, Stuttgart, 1906, p. 389. 12 — 
Ibid., p. 346. 23 — Prospekt, 190J, p. 11. 24 — Die Gewerbebef oer- 
derung im K. Wuertt., p. 31. 27 — Ibid., loc. cit., Prospekt, p. 8. 
32 — Ibid., p. 7 ff. 33 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., 
p. 31. 36 — Prospekt, p. 10. 37 — Ibid., p. 11. 

Page 62: 
2-6 — Ibid., loc. cit. 8 — Ibid., p. 12. 10 — Ibid., loc. cit.; Die 
Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., p. 32. 15 — Ibid., loc. cit.; 
Prospekt., p. 12. 22 — Ibid., loc. cit.; Die Gewerbebefoerderung im 
K. Wuertt., p. 32 ff. 27 — Ibid., loc. cit.; Prospekt, p. 13. 37 — 
Ibid., loc. cit. 38 — Ibid., p. 15. 40 — Cf. Etat. Also: Records 
of Central Office. 

Page 63 : 
7 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., p. 40 ff. 13-17 — 
Ibid., p. 41 f). Also Etat. 23 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. 
Wuertt., p. 54, note. 29 — Ibid., p. 45. 32-34 — Ibid., p. 45, note. 
35 — Cf. Etat. 37 — Jahresbericht fuer das Schuljahr 1 90 5-2 906, 
P- 3- 39 — Programm, 1906, p. 3. 



References 83 

Page 64: 
3 — Ibid., loc. tit.; Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., p. 46. 
5 — Ibid., loc. tit. 7 — Programm, p. 15. 10 — Ibid., p. 3 ff. 11-21 
■ — Ibid., p. 10. 22-23 — Ibid., p. 12. 25-26 — Ibid., p. 13. 27 — 
Ibid., p. 9. 33-35 — Lexis: Vol. IV, p. 160. 36-38 — Die Gewer- 
bebefoerderung im K . Wuertt., p. 52. 40 — Ibid., p. 51. 

Page 65: 
3 — Ibid., p. 52. 9 — Ibid., p. 52 ff. 16 — Cf. Etat. 17 — For- 
merly a division of the local industrial improvement school. 
34 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wueritemberg, p. 54. 37 — 
Ibid., passim. 

Page 66: 

20-28 — Bechtle: Die Gewerbebefoerderung, p. 56. 30 — Ibid., 

passim. 31— Ibid., p. 57 f. 37— Ibid., pp. 58-59. 39— Ibid., 
p. 62. 

Page 67: 
1 — Ibid., pp. 58-60. 9 — Ibid., p. 70. 12 — Ibid., p. 71. 16 — 
iirctf., pp. 71-73. 17 — Z&id, p. 72. 18-19 — Ibid., p. 73. 21 — 
Ibid., p. 77. 24 — Ibid., p. 78. 26 — Ibid., p. 79. 30 — Ibid., p. 
81. 33 — Ibid., pp. 58-59, ^ passim. 38 — Cf. ifo/- wwd Staats- 
handbuch. 

Page 68: 
1 — Ibid., p. 94. 5 — Ibid., p. 95, passim. 7 — /frid., p. 99. 9 — 
Cf. Etat; Die Gewerbebefoerderung imK. Wuertt., p. 11 1 ff. 13-16 
— Ibid., p. 96. 18 — Ibid., p. 101. 18 — Ibid., p. 103. 20 — Ibid., 
p. 104, 101. 22 — Ibid., p. 101. 24-28 — Ibid., p. 104. 31-34 
— Ibid., p. 105. 36 — Cf. Etats. 

Page 69: 

ic-14 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., p. no. 15 — 
Cf. Wuertt. Hauptfinanzetat. 18 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung imK. 
Wuertt., pp. in-115. 19 — Ibid., p. in. 23-31 — Ibid., p. 112. 
32 — Ibid., p. 163. 36 — Ibid., pp. 115-118. 

Page 70: 
9 — 76id., pp. 24, 25, 119. 10 — Ibid., p. 121, et passim. 12 — 
Ibid., p. 120. 14 — Ibid., p. 125. 17 — iMl, pp. 108-110, et pas- 
sim. 19 — x r 6i<2., pp. 128-131. 20 — Ibid., pp. 129-131. 22 — 76id., 



84 References 



27 — Ibid., p. 114. 28- 
• i47 ff. 



pp. 131-135. 25— /&«/., pp. 1 20-1 2 1 
Zfrid., p. 164, et passim. 29 — Ibid., p 

Page 7 1 : 

2 — 7fo'<i., passim. 6 — Ibid., p. 6. 7 — Huebner: .Die Deutschen 
Schulmuseen, p. 9. 12 — Die Gewerbebefoerderung im K. Wuertt., 
pp. 8-9. 27-32 — Ibid., p. 9. 36 — Ibid., p. 1. 37 — Ibid., p. 25. 
38 — Ibid., p. 19. 

Page 7 2 : 

1 — Ibid., p. 11 ff. ; Zfod., p. 121 //. 2 — /&«/., p. 20. 7 — 76t^., 
p. 20 /f. 8 — Ibid., p. 26. ti — Ibid., p. 27 $\ 



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j e& m 



The 
Industrial Improvement Schools of 



A 






Wuerttemberg 



By 

Albert A. Snowden 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

in the Faculty of Philosophy 

of Columbia University 



1908 




Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pr 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxid 
Treatment Date: Sept. 2003 

PreservationTechnoloi 

a wnm n i fadfr in paper presern 



